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FROM  THE  LIBRARY  OF 
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Jennings,  A.  C. 

Manual  of  Church  History 


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THEOLOGICAL   EDUC 


Ediied  by  the 

REV.     W.     ROBERTSON     NICOLL,     M.A 

Editor  of  "  Tlte  Expositor.' 


REV.  A.  C.  JENNINGS' 
MANUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 


HODDER    AND    STOUGHTON, 
27,  PATERNOSTER  ROW. 


MDCCCLX-XX\-IIT. 


A    MANUAL 


CHURCH    HISTORY. 


/BY  THE  REV. 

A.    C.    JENNINGS,    M.A, 

RECTOR   OF   king's   STANLEY  ; 

Author  of  "  Ecclesta  Anglicana"  "  A  Conunejitary  on  the  Psalvts,"  etc. 


lA  TWO  VOLUMES. 
VOL.  IL 


HODDER    AND    STOUGHTON, 

27,  PATERNOSTER  ROW. 


MDCCCLXXXVIII. 

All  rights  reserved."] 


Printed  by  Hazell,  Watson,  &  Viney,  Ld.,  London  and  Aylesbury. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  XL 

ELEVENTH   CENTURY   (1051 — 1100). 

PAGK 

Papal  elections  vested  in  the  College  of  Cardinals — The 
Cardinals  override  the  Imperial  prerogative.  Alex- 
ander II.  and  Honorius  II. — Attack  on  the  married 
clergy  of  Milan — Triumph  of  the  rule  of  celibacy 
at  Milan  and  Florence — Germany  misgoverned  by 
Hanno,  Adalbert,  and  Henry  IV. — Hildebrand's 
scheme  advanced  by  Alexander  II. — Hildebrand  be- 
comes Pope  Gregory  VII.  His  ecclesiastical  principles 
— The  Papacy  checks  misgovernment  in  France  and 
Germany — Gregory  attacks  married  and  simoniacal 
clergy— Gregory  attacks  the  feudal  relation  of  the 
clergy — Synods  at  "Worms  and  Piacenza  disown 
Gregory — Collapse  of  the  opposition.  Henry  deposed 
at  Tribur — Henry's  penance  at  Canossa — The  rival 
Emperor  and  rival  Pope,  1077-80 — Close  of  Henry's 
reign — The  First  Crusade.  Capture  of  Antioch  and 
Jerusalem — The  English  Church  after  the  Conquest 
— Lanfranc  as  Primate.  England's  aversion  to  clerical 
celibacy.  Its  independence  of  Rome — Anselm  with- 
stands William  II.  and  Henry  I.  Lay  investiture — 
Monastic  movement.  Augustinian  Canons,  Order  of 
Grammont,  Carthusians,  Cistercians — Heretics  in 
France  and  Italy 1 — 19 

CHAPTER  XIL 

TWELFTH   CENTURY. 

Rome  and  the  Empire  still  at  variance — The  Concordat 
of  Worms — The  Papal  schism  ended  by  Bernard. 
Lateran  Council    of    1139— The   Roman   Republic. 


vi  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Arnold  of  Brescia — Theology  of  Abelard — The 
Second  and  Third  Crusades — Conflict  with  the  Empire 
renewed  by  Hadrian  IV. — Alexander  III.  triumphs 
over  Frederic  I. — The  hierarchical  cause  in  England. 
Becket  and  the  Constitutions  of  Clarendon — The  Third 
Lateran  Council,  1179 — Monasticism  in  this  century. 
Cistercians.  Clnniacs.  Independence  of  Religious 
Houses — Premonstratensians — Carmelites  and  Mili- 
tary Fraternities —  Learning  :  Universities,  Law- 
schools  and  Canon-law — Theolog}^:  Peter  Lombard's 
Sentences.  New  Festivals.  Relics.  Indulgences — 
Christianity  in  the  East — Ireland,  Scandinavia,  Pome- 
rania — Sects  :  Bogomiles  and  Petrobusians— Publi- 
cani,  Cathari,  Waldenses 20 — 36 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

THIRTEENTH   CENTURY. 

Aggrandizement  of  Papacy  under  Innocent  III. — Contest 
for  the  Empire  :  Philip  and  Otho — Innocent  subordi- 
nates Otho  IV.  and  Frederic  II. — Innocent's  triumphs 
in  France  and  England — Innocent's  opposition  to 
Magna  Charta— Innocent's  influence  in  Hungary, 
Spain,  Dalmatia,  Bulgaria,  Armenia — The  Fourth 
Crusade  and  Western  occupation  of  Constantinople — 
The  Children's  Crusade  and  Albigensian  Crusade — 
The  Mendicants.  Dominic  de  Guzman  and  Francis  of 
Assisi — Subsequent  history  of  the  Mendicant  Orders — 
The  Lateran  Council  of  1215— Conflict  of  Gregory  IX. 
and  Frederic  II.  Gregory's  Decretals — Failure  of 
Gregory  IX. — Innocent  IV.  The  Council  of  Lyons. 
Decline  of  the  Empire— Papal  extortions  in  England. 
Provision.  Reservation — Anti-papal  legislation  of 
Lewis  IX. — Extortions  of  the  Sovereigns — Establish- 
ment of  the  Inquisition — Successful  career  of  Gregoiy 
X.— The  Council  of  Lyons,  A.D.  1274— The  Council 
is  without  practical  effect — Boniface  VIII.  The 
'•  Clericis  Laicos."  Its  reception — Boniface's  struggle 
with  Philip  IV.  The  "  Unam  Sanctam  " — Humilia- 
tion of   Boniface  VIIL— Spread  of  Western  Chris- 


CONTENTS.  vii 

PAGE 

tianity — Heresies  :  The  Stedingers,  Brethren  of  the 
Free  Spirit,  Apostolici  —  Mendicancy  restricted. 
Prophecies  of  Joachim  and  Peter  John  Oliva — 
Doctrine  and  Ptitiial  in  the  thu'teenth  century — Art, 
Literature.  The  leading  Schoolmen — The  Church 
and  Constitutional  Government.  The  English  Con- 
vocation         37—62 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

FOURTEENTH   CENTURY. 

The  Seventy  Years'  Captivity — Suppression  of  Templars. 
Council  of  Vienne.  Durandus  proposes  reforms — 
Pope  John  XXII. — Opposes  Lewis  IV. — Ockham's 
"  Dialogue  "  and  "  Compendium."  The  "  Defensor 
Pacis  " — Lewis  IV,  appoints  an  Anti-pope.  Success 
of  John.  He  is  accused  of  Heresy — Charles  IV.,  the 
"  Priests'  Emperor."  The  Golden  Bull— The  Black 
Death,  Jubilee  of  Clement  VI.  Eienzi — Innocent 
VI.  and  Gregory  XL  The  Papacy  again  at  Eome 
—The  "Great  Schism,"  1378-1417— The  Schism 
prolonged  by  Papal  insincerity — Papal  authority 
weakened  in  England.  Statutes  of  Provisors  and 
Praemunire — The  English  reformer,  Wyclif — The 
Anarchical  Lollards.  "Wyclif 's  Bible  prohibited — The 
Bohemian  Movement  begins — The  Quietists — Canon 
Law  completed — The  Clerical  Status — Conversion  of 
Lithuania — Relations  of  the  Eastern  to  Western 
Churches.  Andronicus'  Mission  of  Bariaam — Barlaam 
and  the  Hesychastic  Controversy — Eastern  negotia- 
tions with  the  Papacy  renewed.  Cantacuzene.  John 
Pal^ologus — Decline  of  Christianity  farther  east — 
Church  Dogma  stereotyped.    Universal  cry  for  reform 

63-81 
CHAPTER  XV. 

FIFTEENTH   CENTURY. 

The  Popes  prolong  the  Schism — Council  of  Pisa.  Deposi- 
tion of  the  Popes — Alexander  V.  Bull  in  favour  of  the 
Friars — John  XXIII. — Council  of  Constance  judges 


viii  CONTENTS. 

PA.GB 

John  XXIII. — Councils  declared  superior  to  Popes. 
The  three  Popes  dealt  with — Election  of  Martin  V., 
who  hinders  measures  of  reform — The  Bohemian 
heresies — Trial  and  Execution  of  Hus — Trial  and 
Execution  of  Jerome — Martin  V.  adorns  Piome  ;  his 
exactions  in  France  and  England — Failure  of 
Council  of  Pavia— The  Utraquist  Rising  in  Bohemia 
— Utraquists  victorious  under  Ziska  and  Procopius — 
Council  of  Basle  ;  coerces  Eugenius  IV. ;  attacks  Papal 
aggressions— Election  of  Felix  V.  Decay  of  Council 
— Rival  Council  at  Ferrara.  Coercion  of  the  Greek 
Deputies— Piccolomini  effects  a  Concordat — The 
Revival  of  Letters  under  Nicholas  V. — Calixtus  IV. 
and  the  Crusade— Pius  II.  The  Bull  *'  Execrabilis." 
Repeal  of  Pragmatic  Sanction — The  Secularising 
Popes,  Sixtus  IV.,  Innocent  VIII.,  Alexander  VI. — 
Disreputable  Pontificate  of  Alexander  VI. — Savonarola 
at  Florence — Extension  of  Christendom — Persecution 
of  Jews  and  Mahommedans — The  Inquisition  checked 
in  France— Reformers  and  Religious  Enthusiasm — 
Monasticism 82 — 106 

CHAPTER   XVI. 
SIXTEENTH   CENTURY. 

Decay  of  religion  at  Rome  —The  two  Reformations.  Luther 
—  Analysis  of  the  New  Theology  —  Divers  Sacra- 
mental theories.  Consubstantiation  —  Progress  of 
Lutheranism.  Diet  of  Worms — Hadrian  VI.  Im- 
politic conduct  of  Clement  VII. — Ultra-Protestant 
excesses.  The  Reformers  in  disrepute — The  rival 
Leagues.  Diet  of  Spires  secures  the  status  of  the 
Lutherans.  Confession  of  Augsburg — The  Swiss 
Reformation.  Zwingle — Zwingle  disparages  Sacra- 
ments —  Calvin  :  his  doctrine  and  ecclesiastical 
organization — Calvin's  relations  with  the  Zwinglians 
and  Lutherans — The  counter-reformation.  Paul  III. 
and  the  Colloquy  at  Ratisbon  —  The  Lutherans 
weakened.  The  Interim — Council  of  Trent  under 
Paul    III. —The    Jesuits:    their    success — Diet    of 


CONTENTS.  ix 

PAGE 

Augsburg.  Religious  toleration  established — Council 
of  Trent  under  Julius  III. — Paul  IV.  His  anti- 
imperial  policy — Pius  IV,  Final  proceedings  of 
Council  of  Trent — Subsequent  history  of  Roman 
Catholicism — Intestine  feuds  of  the  Lutherans — 
Conflicts  of  Protestantism  in  France.  Edict  of  Nantes 
— The  English  Reformation.  Its  dawn—  Henry  VIII.'s 
rupture.  Repudiation  of  Papal  authority — Henry's 
Reformation  —  The  English  Reformation  under 
Edward  VI. — The  reaction  under  Mary.  Persecution 
of  the  Reformers— The  Reformation  completed  by 
Elizabeth  —  Turbulence  of  the  Puritans  —  Jewel, 
Hooker,  Andrewes — The  Irish  Reformation — The 
Scotch  Reformation — The  Reformation  in  the  Nether- 
lands—In Denmark,  Norway,  Iceland,  Sweden — In 
Poland — In  Spain  and  Italy — Absence  of  harmony  in 
Reformed  Churches.  Diverse  views  of  State  relations 
— The  Reformation  and  intellectual  progress  .     107—147 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

SEVENTEENTH   CENTUEY. 

The  Free-will  controversies.  The  Jesuits  and  Dominicans 
— Arminius  and  the  Synod  of  Dort.  Results  of  the 
Quinquarticular  controversy — Political  attitude  of  the 
two  religious  systems,  1600-1619 — Exceptional  policy 
of  France — The  Thirty  Years'  War  and  its  results — 
Free-will  controversy  revived.  Jansen's  "  Augustinus  " 
— The  Jesuit  persecution  of  the  Jansenists — Persecu- 
tion of  the  Quietists — The  Papacy  in  this  century. 
The  Galilean  liberties  tabulated  —  Lutheranism  : 
Calixtus.  The  Pietists — Spinoza's  speculative  theo- 
sophy — The  Calvinistic  bodies.  Grotius'  treatment  of 
Scripture.  Revocation  of  Edict  of  Nantes — Triumph 
of  the  Calvinistic  system  in  Scotland.  History  of  the 
Kirk  in  this  century — The  English  Church  under 
James  I,  and  Charles  I. — Religious  bodies  of  the 
Commonwealth.  Independents,  Baptists,  Quakers — 
The  English  Church  at  the  Restoration— The  Church 
under  Charles  II. — The  Church  under  James  II.    The 


X  CONTENTS. 

Kevolution  and  the  Nonjurors— The  Church  under 
William  III. — Great  English  Churchmen  of  this 
century.  Missionary  agencies — Relations  of  the  Greek 
Church  with   Rome.     The   Greek  Church  in  Russia 

148—181 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY. 

Clement  XI.  The  "  Vineam  Domini "  and  *•  Unigenitus  " 
— The  "  Appellants."  Spread  of  Jansenist  and  Gallican 
opinions — Jesuit  proselytism  and  commercial  specu- 
lations. Benedict  XIV.  attempts  to  reform  the  Order 
— Clement  XIII.  and  the  overthrow  of  the  Jesuits — 
Clement  XIV.  suppresses  the  Society  of  Jesus — The 
partition  of  Poland — Attacks  on  the  Papal  system  in 
various  countries — Course  of  the  French  Revolution. 
The  Civil  Constitution.  Abolition  of  Christianity — 
Christianity  again  tolerated.  The  Ecclesiastical 
Council.  Procedure  of  Pius  VI. — Decadence  of  the 
Lutheran  system.  New  schools  of  philosophy — 
Decadence  of  the  Calvinistic  system—  Swedenborg's 
mysticism — Anglicanism  under  Queen  Anne — Pros- 
perity of  the  English  Church.  The  Gallican  overtures 
— The  Georgian  decadence — The  English  school  of 
Freethinkers — English  vindications  of  Christianity — 
The  Methodist  movement  —  The  "Evangelicals" — 
The  Episcopate  under  George  III.  Consecration  of 
American  Bishops — Reversal  of  Coercive  Acts — Ire- 
land—Scotland.   The  Episcopalians.    The  Kirk  182—206 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

Pius  VII.  The  Concordat  with  France — Encroachments 
on  Papal  territory.  Pius's  imprisonment — Restoration 
of  Pius  VII.  The  era  of  reaction.  Revival  of  the 
Jesuits— The  settlement  of  Europe — The  Popes — 
Restoration  of  Pius  IX.  Triumph  of  reactionary 
Catholicism — The  Vatican  Council — The  Papacy  and 
European  Governments— Moral  losses  of  Romanism 


CONTENTS.  xi 

PAGE 

— The  Old  Catholics — Lutheranism  in  Germany.  New 
developments  of  theology — Biblical  criticism — Union 
of  Protestants  and  Reformed  in  Germany — Luther- 
anism in  Sweden,  Norv^^ay,  Denmark — The  Calvinistic 
Churches  in  Switzerland,  France,  and  Holland — The 
Church  of  England.  Concessions  to  Romanists  and 
Dissenters — The  Anglo-Catholic  revival ;  other  agen- 
cies— English  sects — Scotland.  The  Kirk.  The  schism 
of  1843.  Scotch  Episcopalians.  The  Irvingites — 
General  survey 207 — 232 

List  of  Sovereigns,  Popes,  and  General  Councils 

233—236 


CHAPTER    XI. 

ELEVENTH    CENTURY    (1054-1100). 

THE  mainspriDg  of  that  great  ecclesiastical 
machinery  which  we  call  the  Papal  system  of 
the  Middle  Ages  was,  from  1059  onwards,  p  ^  elections 
the  College  of  Cardinals.  The  term  car-  "^^coife^o?^ 
dinal  originally  meant  a  fixed  occupier  of  Cardinals. 
an  ecclesiastical  office ;  but  it  had  assumed  a  peculiar 
significance  at  Pome,  possibly  in  view  of  this  See's 
established  claim  to  be  the  "  car  do  et  caput  Ecclesice." 
The  Cardinal-bishops  were  the  seven  Bishops  of  the 
Pope's  immediate  province — those  of  Ostia,  Porto, 
Albano,  S.  Rufina,  Frascati,  Palestrina,  and  La  Sabina. 
The  Cardinal-priests  were  the  incumbents  of  the 
twenty- eight  chief  Roman  churches.  It  was  in  the 
pontificate  of  Nicholas  11.  that  the  Lateran  Council  of 
1059  vested  all  future  Papal  elections  in  the  College  of 
Cardinals.  The  minority  of  the  Emperor  (Henry  lY.) 
had  invalidated  the  imperial  prerogative,  and  on  the 
death  of  Stephen  IX.  the  nobles  of  the  Campagna 
had  invaded  Rome,  plundered  St.  Peter's,  and  elected 
Benedict  X.  (1058),  one  of  the  house  of  the  famous 
Consul  Crescentius.  Benedict,  however,  shortly  suc- 
cumbed to  the  cardinals'  candidate,  Gerard,  Bishop  of 
Florence  (Nicholas  II.),  for  whom  Hildebrand  thought 

VOL.    II.  1 


2  MANUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

it  advisable  to  secure  the  nomination  of  the  Empress- 
mother  Agnes.  Hildebrand's  influence  may  be  de- 
tected in  the  provisions  now  established  (1059).  The 
seven  bishops  were  to  meet  first  to  discuss  the  candi- 
dates' merits,  but  the  Cardinal-priests  were  to  join  them 
in  electing.  The  remaining  clergy  and  the  Ex)man 
people  were  only  to  be  asked  to  assent  to  the  appoint- 
ment. The  election  was  to  be  made  "  saving  the  due 
honour  and  reverence "  of  such  as  the  Papal  See 
recognised  as  Emperors.  It  must  be  noticed  that 
this  scheme  was  modified  by  Alexander  III.  in  the 
next  century,  to  propitiate  other  leading  clergy  not 
included  by  Nicholas,  and  especially  the  seven  officials 
called  ''  Palatine  judges."  These  were  included  among 
the  cardinals.  In  some  other  twelfth-century  pontifi- 
cate the  inferior  clergy  were  humoured  by  the 
inclusion  in  the  college  of  the  regionarii,  or  Cardinal - 
deacons.  Henceforth  the  full  number  of  electors  was 
53,  until  Sixtus  V.  in  1586  fixed  it  at  70. 

The  shadowy  imperial  prerogative  was  altogether 
mi.   n   J-    1    isrnored     in     the    election    of     Nicholas' 

The  Cardinals    * 

override  the   succcssor,    A.D.    1061.     Hildcbrand's   en- 

Imperial  ' 

prerogative,    yoys   had   been   slighted  at  the  German 
and         court   through  the   machinations  of   the 

TTatiaviiiq  TT 

factious  cardinal,  Hugh  the  White.  He 
avenged  himself  by  enlisting  the  assistance  of  the 
Normans,  who  had  some  years  previously  secured 
the  Papal  sanction  for  their  inroads.  Under  Norman 
protection,  and  relying  on  the  weakness  of  the  boy 
Emperor,  the  cardinals,  without  regard  to  imperial 
privileges,  raised  to  the  pontificate  Anselm  of  Lucca, 
who  took  the  title  Alexander  II.    But  a  diet  of  princes 


ELEVENTH  CENTURY.  3 

and  prelates  at  Basle  now  indignantly  annulled  the 
decree  of  the  Lateran  Council,  and  elected  Cadolus, 
Bishop  of  Parma,  who,  assuming  the  title  Honorius  II., 
for  some  years  held  his  own  at  Borne  against  the 
cardinals'  nominee.  Alexander's  triumph  was  aided 
by  the  adhesion  of  Hanno,  Bishop  of  Cologne.  This 
prelate  had  coolly  carried  off  the  boy  Emperor  Henry 
lY.  from  his  mother's  guardianship  in  1062,  and  had 
vested  the  administration  of  the  Empire  in  the 
archbishop  in  whose  province  the  prince  should 
happen  to  be  resident.  Naturally  Hanno  and  Hilde- 
brand  cemented  an  alliance,  the  latter  comparing 
Hanno's  procedure  to  Jehoiada's  abduction  of  Joash 
from  the  wicked  Queen  Athaliah.  A  synod  was  now 
held  at  Augsburg  which  acknowledged  Alexander  as 
Pope,  and  excommunicated  Cadolus.  Peter  Damiani 
seems  to  have  produced  at  this  meeting  his  noted 
dialogue  between  an  "  Advocate  of  the  Boyal  Power  " 
and  a  "  Defender  of  the  Boman  Church,"  in  which 
the  Pope's  independence  of  the  Empire  is  plausibly 
maintained.  The  schism  continuing,  Hanno  proceeded 
in  A.D.  1067  to  adjudicate  the  case  at  Bome  itself. 
Here  Hildebrand's  argument,  that  no  layman  had  any 
right  to  control  the  disposal  of  the  Papacy,  seems  to 
have  been  admitted.  Alexander  vindicated  his  own 
conduct,  and  was  confirmed  in  the  pontificate.  Cado- 
lus retired  to  his  bishopric  of  Parma. 

We  have  observed  that  at  Milan  clerical  marriages 
were   tolerated,    Ambrose's    name    being 

.     ,  i  1        -x      1?       j-1  •  Attack  on  the 

quoted  as  an  authority  tor  the  concession,   married  clergy 

The  practice  so  hateful  at  Borne  was  also 

connived  at  in  Turin,  and  was  probably  rife  through- 


4         MANUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

out  all  North  Italy.  The  first  attempt  to  impugn  it 
was  made  shortly  after  Henry  III.  appointed  Guy  to 
the  archbishopric  of  Milan  (a.d.  1045),  by  a  dis- 
appointed aspirant  named  Anselm  of  Baggio.  Ten 
years  later  Ariald,  a  deacon  of  questionable  character, 
and  Landulf,  a  nobleman  of  great  oratorical  powers, 
were  incited  by  Anselm  to  attack  the  "  Nicolaitan  " 
clergy  of  Milan.  A  faction-war  ensued,  in  which 
the  mob  usually  opposed  and  the  nobles  abetted 
the  married  clerks.  Ai^chbishop  Guy  cited  the  two 
authors  of  the  disturbance  before  a  synod,  but  they 
disallowed  his  authority.  Guy  excommunicated  them. 
Pope  Stephen  IX.,  gladly  embracing  the  opportunity 
for  interference,  restored  them.  Anselm  and  Peter 
Damiani  were  sent  as  his  legates  to  investigate  this 
matter  in  1057-8.  Peter's  eloquence  overcame  the 
citizens'  resentment  at  this  encroachment,  and  even 
persuaded  them  that  their  great  Ambrose  had  himself 
yielded  subjection  to  Pope  Siricius. 

Guy  and  the  North  Italian  bishops  attended  the 
Triumph  of    Lateran  Council  of   1059,  and  apparently 

the  rule  of  ,    .        ,      .   .  ,  . 

celibacy  at  accepted  its  decision  on  the  questions  at 
Florence,  issue — that  no  married  priest  might  cele- 
brate mass,  and  that  no  clerk  should  take  preferment 
from  a  layman,  whether  for  money  or  gratuitously. 
But  this  ruling  only  caused  fresh  disturbances  in 
North  Italy.  Ariald's  cause  was  now  joined  by 
Landulf's  brother,  Herlembald,  whose  affianced  bride 
had  been  seduced  by  a  clerk,  and  who  revenged 
himself  by  leading  the  Anti-Nicolaitans  to  acts  of 
violence.  Herlembald  secured  the  Papal  excommu- 
nication of  Archbishop  Guy  as  a  simoniac  in  1066, 


ELEVENTH  CENTURY.  5 

but  a  tumult  ensued  at  Milan  which  resulted  in  the 

expulsion  and  assassination  of  Ariald.     In  1067  two 

Papal  legates  came  to    Milan,    and   ruled    that   the 

married  clergy  should  divorce  their  wives  on   pain 

of  deprivation.     But  Herlembald  still  pressed  for  the 

deposition  of  Guy,  as  a  prelate  elevated  by  imperial 

nomination.     Guy  weakly  consented   to  resign,  and 

was  confined  in  a  monastery  till  his  death,  the  archi- 

episcopal  power  passing  into  the  hands  of  Herlembald. 

A  similar  struggle  against  the  Nicolaitan  clergy  and 

the    bishop    Peter   was   conducted    at    Florence    by 

Gualbert  and  the  monks  of  Yallombrosa.     There  the 

matter  was  settled  by  ordeal.      The  monk  ''Petrus 

Igneus"  (afterwards  made  Cardinal-Bishop  of  Albano) 

succeeded  in  passing  unscathed  between  two  lines  of 

flame,  and  popular  clamour  drove  the  bishop  to  resign. 

The    state    of    Germany    during    the    nonage    of 

Henry  IV.    reflects   httle  credit    on  the  Germany  mis- 
governed by- 
regent    prelates.     In    violence,    extra va-  Hanno,  Adai- 

gance,  and  greed.  Archbishop  Hanno  was     Henry  rv. 

rivalled   by   Adalbert,    Ai^chbishop   of    Bremen    and 

Hamburg,  who  having  won  the  hking  of  Hemy,  now 

aged  fifteen,  carried  him  to  Worms,  and  declared  him 

fit  to  govern,   a.d.    1065.      Having  thus  secured  to 

himself  control  of  the  Empire,  Adalbert,  by  pillage 

and  violence,  so  irritated  the  nobles  that  they  decreed 

his  expulsion  in  a  diet  at  Tribur,  1066.     Hanno  was 

now   again   supreme.     In    1069,  however,  Adalbert 

recovered  his  position,   and   continued    his  shameful 

maladministration  till   his   death   in    1072.      Henry 

now  took  the  reins  of  empire  in  his  own  hands,  to 

do  justice  to  his  tutors  by  a  career  of  tyranny  and 


6  MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

spoliation.  Leaguing  with  Siegfried,  the  rapacious 
Archbishop  of  Mayence,  who  had  advanced  a  claim 
to  tithes  in  Thuringia,  he  marched  thither  with  an 
army  of  marauders.  Saxony  and  Swabia  gr  aned 
under  the  oppression,  lust,  and  rapine  of  the  imperial 
gariisons.  One  of  the  least  of  Henry's  sins,  his 
"  simoniacal "  disposal  of  benelices,  was,  in  Papal 
estimation,  the  greatest.  It  drew  upon  Henry  the 
wrath  of  Alexander  II.  This  Pope  now  began  the 
conflict  so  successfully  waged  by  Gregory  VII.,  by 
excommunicating  five  of  the  royal  counsellors,  and 
demanding  that  Henry  himself  should  make  satis- 
faction to  the  Church. 

At  this  juncture  (a.d.  1073)  death  ended  a  pontifi- 
HUdebrand's  ^^^^  which  had  singularly  advanced  the 
vSby     policy    of    Hildebrand.       Siegfried     and 
Alexander  II.  Hanno    had    both     obeyed     Alexander's 
summons  to  Home,  and  had  been  rebuked  for  count- 
enancing simony.     Lanfranc,  appointed  to  Canterbury 
by  William  I.  in  Stigand's  stead,  had  secured  his  pall 
from  Alexander  only  by  personal  attendance  at  Rome. 
Thomas,  Ai^chbishop  of   York,  had  also  attended  to 
ask  a  Papal  sentence  as  to  the  relative  position  of  the 
two  English  primacies.    The  authority  thus  vindicated 
against  prelates  was  now  to  encounter   the   highest 
representative  of  the  secular  power. 

The  clergy  and  people  of  Home  alike  clamoured  for 

HUdebrand    ^^^  elevation  of  the  man  who  had  so  long 

Gre^^  vS!  directed  the  policy  of  the  Papacy.     Duly 

eccieSasticai  ^^^cted  by  the  cardinals,  Hildebrand  took 

principles,    the  title  Gregory  YII.,  a.d.  1073.     For 

the  last  time  the  confirmation  of  the  Emperor  was 


ELEVENTH  CENTURY.  7 

sought  by  the  occupant  of  St.  Peter's  chair,  and  the 
imperial  commissioners  could  find  no  irregulai-ity  in 
the  distasteful  appointment.  The  principles  which 
Gregory  avowedly  applied  in  the  management  of  the 
pontificate  are  set  forth  in  the  "  Dictate,"  a  document 
possibly  of  his  own  authorship.  The  Pope  is  here 
represented  as  a  universal  bishop.  He  is  not  only 
sui  generis  in  the  Church,  and  able  to  depose  bishops 
without  synodical  sanction ;  he  is  set  over  the  secular 
powers ;  he  is  able  to  dethrone  emperors  and  absolve 
subjects  from  their  allegiance.  No  council  can  be 
called  "  general,"  without  his  permission.  The  Pope 
never  has  erred,  and  is  above  all  judgment.  Consist- 
ently the  epistles  of  Gregory  assert  that  kingdoms  are 
held  in  fief  of  the  Pope.  By  audacious  distortions 
of  history,  Saxony,  Spain,  Hungary,  Bohemia, 
Denmark,  Poland,  England,  Ireland,  and  other 
countries  are  all  represented  as  entrusted  to  their 
rulers  by  the  Papacy.  The  ambiguous  term  simony 
is  extended  to  all  lay  patronage  of  benefices,  it  being 
argued  that  what  has  been  given  to  God  can  never 
henceforward  be  subjected  to  the  disposal  of  the 
donor. 

These  pretensions  were  furthered  by  the  despicable 
characters    of   the   French   and    German 
rulers,  Philip  I.  and  Henry  TV.     Despite       checks 
their  audacity,  it  is  undeniable  that  in  infranceS 
this   and   other   periods   the   world  tern-       ^"^^'^y' 
porarily  benefited  by  the  extravagant  claims  of  the 
Papacy.     They   were  the  only  available   instrument 
for   the    suppression    of   rapacity   and   vice   in   high 
places.      Against   the    oppressive    and    unprincipled 


8  MANUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

Pliilip,  Gregory  successfully  used  tlu-eats  of  an  inter- 
dict, and  the  withdrawal  of  his  subjects'  allegiance. 
In  dealing  with  Henry  IV.,  whose  misgovernment 
had  now  caused  a  formidable  insurrection  in  Saxony, 
Gregory's  hands  were  strengthened  by  two  female 
allies.  These  were  Agnes,  the  Empress-mother, 
who  had  listened  to  Peter  Damiani  and  become  a 
Roman  nun,  and  the  great  Countess  Matilda,  the 
mistress  of  Tuscany  and  Lorraine,  a  woman  who 
joined  to  extraordinary  administrative  talents  zealous 
devotion  to  the  Papal  policy.  Gregory's  first  triumph 
was  when  Henry  was  persuaded  by  Agnes  to  seek 
absolution  from  four  bishops  sent  to  Nuremberg  as 
Papal  envoys,  and  promise  restitution  of  the  plundered 
property  of  the  Church,  and  a  suppression  of 
simony. 

About  the  same  time  Gregory  attacked  the  "  Nico- 
Gregory  attacks  laitan"  clergy  with  surpassing  boldness. 
"^^onfaS^  The  laity  everywhere  were  charged  at  the 
clergy.  Koman  Synod  of  Lent  1074,  to  refuse  the 
ministrations  of  all  clergy  who  were  guilty  of  "simony" 
or  of  marriage.  This  decree  immediately  raised  a 
storm  of  indignation  in  Lombardy,  Germany,  and 
France.  Siegfried,  the  Archbishop  of  Mayence,  read 
it  unwilhngly  at  Erfurt,  and  his  clergy  replied  with 
menaces  against  both  him  and  Gregory.  John, 
Ai^chbishop  of  Pouen,  on  reading  it  was  driven  from 
the  cathedral  pulpit  with  stones.  But  Gregory  sent 
legates  to  enforce  his  measure,  and  the  monks  every- 
where aided  him  by  rousing  the  populace  against  the 
"  Nicolaitans."  The  monkish  chronicler  glories  in  the 
sufferings  inflicted  on  the  wives  of  the  clergy,  relating 


ELEVENTH  CENTURY.  9 

how  they  were  often  driven  to  commit  suicide,  how 
some  died  suddenly,  how  others  were  carried  off  by 
evil  spirits. 

Having  thus  earned  the  detestation  of  the  clergy, 
Gregory,  in  Lent,  1075,  confronted  the  crying  sin  of 
the  laity.  The  practice  of  lay-investiture  was  hence- 
forth prohibited.  No  ecclesiastic  was  to  receive  it,  no 
lay  potentate  w^as  to  confer  it.  We  have  already  men- 
tioned the  objections  of  pious  men  to  the  use  of  such 
instruments  of  investiture  as  the  ring  and  the  staff. 
But  Gregory's  aim  did  not  stop  at  a  suppression 
of  ambiguous  symbols.  It  included  a  Gregory  attacks 
transfer  of  the  feudal  allegiance  of  the  reiation^ome 
bishops  from  the  sovereign  to  the  Pope  clergy, 
himself.  There  were  many  prelates  to  whom  this 
change  would  be  unwelcome.  Guibert,  the  imperialist 
Archbishop  of  Kavenna,  apparently  abetted  the 
attempt  now  made  by  Cencius,  a  disorderly  noble- 
man, to  carry  the  hateful  pontiff  from  Home  by 
force.  At  the  imperial  court  a  deprived  prelate, 
Cardinal  Hugh  the  White,  first  suggested  to  Henry 
(who  had  been  summoned  to  Rome  for  having  nomi- 
nated certain  bishops),  that  he  should  retaliate  by 
repudiating  Gregory's  claim  to  the  Papacy. 

For  this  purpose  a  synod  was  convened  at  Worms  in 
1076.     Siegfried  presided,  and  the  bishops 
and  abbots  of  Germany  attended  in  large    Worms  and 
numbers.     This  assembly  pronounced  the       disown 
deposition   of    Gregory,    as   elevated    by       "^°'^- 
bribery  and  violence,  and  guilty  of  "  simony,  magic, 
praying   to   the   devil,"    etc.     The  Emperor  himself 
wrote  a  letter  to  the  Romans,  bidding  them  expel 


10       MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

"the  monk  Hildebrand."  The  Lombard  bishops  at 
Piacenza  spontaneously  confirmed  the  proceedings  of 
the  German  episcopate,  and  swore  never  again  to 
acknowledge  Gregory  as  Pope. 

At  the  Lenten  Poman  Synod  of  a.d.  1076,  these 
CoUapseofthe  measures  were  formally  announced.  Un- 
HeSweposed  dismayed,  the  great  pontiff  proceeded  to 
atTribur.  excommunicatc  Henry,  depose  him  from 
the  government  of  Germany  and  Italy,  and  absolve 
all  his  subjects  from  their  oaths  of  allegiance.  The 
prelates  who  had  met  at  Worms  and  Piacenza  were 
suspended  and  interdicted  from  the  Eucharist. 
William,  Bishop  of  Utrecht,  thereupon  pronounced 
a  ban  against  the  Pope;  the  Lombard  bishops  did 
the  same.  But  the  speedy  death  of  William,  and  the 
desertion  of  XJdo,  Bishop  of  Treves,  and  other  prelates, 
dispirited  the  imperial  party.  The  Papal  excommu- 
nication was  no  despicable  penalty.  It  was  found 
moreover  that  the  misgovernment  of  Henry  made  it 
impossible  to  maintain  the  imperial  cause  with  ardour. 
"  The  world,"  says  Dean  Milman,  "  could  at  this 
time  do  better  without  a  Caesar  than  without  a  Pope." 
After  Henry's  failure  to  suppress  the  Saxon  insur- 
rection his  party  diminished  rapidly.  By  Gregory's 
orders  a  diet  met  at  Ti'ibur.  The  Papal  legates 
attended.  The  princes,  nobles,  and  prelates  of 
Germany  (including  many  of  his  late  advisers), 
denounced  Henry  as  the  cause  of  all  calamities  in 
Church  and  State,  and  decided  to  depose  him.  He 
was  allowed  a  year's  grace  to  secuie  the  removal  of 
Gregory's  sentence  of  excommunication,  foregoing  the 
while  all  assumption  of  royalty. 


ELEVENTH  CENTURY.  11 


Thus  put  at  the  mercy  of  his  enemy,  Henry  was 


penance 
anossa. 


forced  to  cross  the  Alps  in  winter  with  a  Henry's 
scanty  retinue,  a.d.  1077.  He  found  the  ^^^^' 
Italian  bishops  and  nobles  eager  to  rise  against 
Gregory,  but  he  adhered  to  his  intention  of  seeking 
reconciliation.  Gregory  had  retired  to  Matilda's 
fortress  at  Canossa.  Here  the  Emperor  was  com- 
pelled to  wait  between  the  walls,  barefooted  and  in 
penitential  garb,  for  three  winter  days,  before  the 
sentence  of  excommunication  was  removed.  But  this 
celebrated  scene  only  inaugurated  another  struggle. 
The  Italians  were  disgusted  at  the  Emperor's  abase- 
ment, and  the  Germans  were  angered  because  the 
matter  had  not  been  settled  by  the  Pope  at  Augsburg, 
as  at  first  arranged.  Gregory  too  even  now  evaded 
Henry's  request  for  his  coronation  as  King  of  Italy. 
The  Emperor  repented  of  his  repentance,  and  pretexts 
for  a  fresh  rupture  were  easily  found. 

The   climax   was   reached    when    the    Pope   sum- 
moned the  diet  at    Forcheim.     Here  the     The  rival 
confederate  princes,  goaded  by  Gregory's  Emperor  and 
legates,  decided  that  they  would  no  longer       io77-8o. 
obey  a  sovereign  under  apostolic  censure,  and  elected 
Kudolf,  Duke  of  Swabia,  in  Heniy's  stead.      Henry, 
however,  had  still  many  adherents,  especially  in  the 
provinces   of    Franconia    and    Bavaria.       The    rival 
claimants  involved  Germany  in  a   three   years'  war 
which  produced  great  misery  and  disorder.     Gregory 
held  his  hand,  till  Rudolf's  success  at  Fladenheim  in 
1080    permitted    a   sweeping    excommunication    and 
deposition  of  Heniy.     Heniy's  party  retorted  by  the 
electivon  rf  Guibcrt  of  Ravenna  as  Pope.     This  wavS 


12       MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

no  idle  menace,  for  Rudolfs  death  in  battle  shortly 
turned  the  scales  of  fortune,  and  brought  Henry's 
troops  to  the  walls  of  Rome.  Gregory  stood  a  three 
years'  siege,  but  at  last  Guibert  (Clement  III.)  was 
enthroned  in  the  Lateran,  and  by  him  the  imperial 
coronation  of  Henry  and  Bertha  was  effected,  1084. 
Guiscard  the  Norman  came,  after  Henry's  withdi^awal, 
to  the  rescue  of  Gregory,  who  had  the  satisfaction 
of  witnessing  a  three  days'  sack  of  his  faithless  city. 
Under  Norman  protection  he  retired  to  Salerno,  and 
here  this  bulwark  of  Papal  assumption  died  in  the 
following  year,  1085.  It  will  be  seen  how  his  grand 
idea  of  a  universal  religious  autocracy,  of  a  new  Rome 
rising  to  rule  the  world  by  religion,  was  developed  by 
such  Popes  as  Alexander  III.  and  Innocent  III. 

The  anti-Pope  Clement  maintained  his  pretensions 
Close  of  Henry's  against  Gregory's  less  noted  successors, 
reign.  y-^^^^^,  jjj^  Urban  II.,  and  Paschal  II., 
and  had  the  support  of  the  Emperor.  Henry's  latter 
days  were  disgraced  by  his  ill-treatment  of  his  second 
wife,  Adelaide,  and  saddened  by  the  rebellion  of  his 
sons,  Conrad  and  Henry,  who  successively  (in  1093  and 
1102)  headed  the  opponent  faction.  The  younger, 
Henry,  connived  at  the  incarceration  and  deposition 
of  his  father  at  Ingelheim,  a.d.  1106.  He  was 
crowned  at  Mayence  by  Archbishop  Ruthard,  a  pre- 
late of  Hildebrandine  opinions,  which  he  used  this 
occasion  to  enuntiate.  Henry  IV.  retired  to  Liege  to 
write  the  kings  of  France,  England,  and  Denmark 
letters  denouncing  the  new  pretensions  of  the  Papacy, 
and  to  gather  around  him  a  formidable  party.  The 
scandal  of  an  open  war  between  father  and  son  was 


ELEVENTH  CENTURY.  13 

averted  by  the  death  of  the  former,  after  a  troubled 
reign  of  fifty  years. 

Meanwhile  Europe  had  been  roused  by  the  preaching 
of    Peter    the    Hermit,    to    redress   the 

The  First 

sufferings  of  the  Christians  of  Jerusalem,  Crusade, 
and  prevent  the  extinction  of  the  Byzan-  Antioch  and 
tine  Church.  The  First  Crusade  was 
proposed  by  Urban  II.  in  two  vast  councils  at 
Piacenza  and  Clermont,  a.d.  1095.  The  Pope's  elo- 
quence was  answered  by  the  famous  cry,  '^  Diex  lo 
volt"  and  men  and  women  of  every  grade  joined 
the  holy  cause.  The  details  of  this  romantic  enter- 
prise need  not  be  pursued  here.  It  will  be  sufficient 
to  sta.te  that  after  a  loss  of  more  than  half  a  million 
lives,  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  Godfrey  of  Bouillon, 
Duke  of  Lorraine,  a.d.  1099,  and  a  kingdom  coter- 
minous with  ancient  Palestine  established  under  the 
famous  legal  code  called  the  "  Assizes  of  Jerusalem." 
The  successive  rulers  were  Godfrey,  and  the  two 
Baldwins,  his  brother  and  his  cousin.  Daimbert, 
Archbishop  of  Pisa,  was  appointed  its  patriarch  by 
Pope  Paschal  II.  and  introduced  Hildebrand's  theory 
of  the  relation  of  secular  and  clerical  offices.  Antioch 
had  fallen  in  1098,  after  the  besiegers  had  undergone 
fearful  sufferings.  Here  Bohemund,  son  of  Robert 
Guiscard,  the  Norman,  was  established  as  prince, 
and  a  Latin  ecclesiastic  was  consecrated  as  patriarch. 
The  Eastern  Emperor,  Alexius  Comnenus,  craftily 
availed  himself  of  the  Crusade  to  recover  Ephesus, 
Smyrna,  Laodicea,  and  the  western  portion  of  the 
Saracen  province  of  Roum.  The  Saracens,  who  had 
made    Nicsea   their   metropolis,    were    compelled    to 


14       MANUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

remove  as  far  south  as  Iconium,  and  the  Eastern 
Empire  was  freed  from  danger.  But  the  political 
and  ecclesiastical  relations  of  the  two  Christian 
powei-s  in  the  East  were  far  from  amicable,  and  the 
Crusade  only  embittered  the  great  schism  of  the 
Churches. 

The  last  half  of  the  eleventh  century  is  a  memor- 
The  English    able   epoch   in    Enarlish    Church   history. 

Church  after    ^,  /  ?  .   .  ^    ^,  ,      / 

the  Conquest.  The  Korman  proclivities  of  Edward  the 
Confessor  had  roused  the  patriotic  nobles  to  strong 
measures.  Archbishop  Kobert  of  Jumieges  had  been 
expelled  in  favour  of  the  native  Stigand,  who  secured 
the  pall  of  a  metropolitan  from  Benedict  X.,  and  held 
his  see  in  defiance  of  Alexander  II.  Under  the  Con- 
queror, whose  enterprise  had  received  Alexander's 
special  sanction,  Stigand  made  way  (a.d.  1070)  for 
Lanfranc,  the  learned  Abbot  of  Bee,  whose  share  in 
the  Eucharistic  controversy  provoked  by  Berengar  has 
been  noticed.  All  the  Saxon  bishops  were  removed 
by  the  invader,  except  the  pious  Wulstan  of  Worces- 
ter ;  and  the  obscure  saints  of  the  insular  hagiology 
were  deprived  of  their  posthumous  honours.  The 
new  monastic  orders  of  the  Continent  spread  over 
the  land ;  and  the  chants  used  in  the  Saxon  Church 
were  superseded  by  those  of  William  of  Fescamp. 
William  I.  perceived  that,  even  under  Norman  pre- 
lates, the  Church  was  the  bulwark  of  Saxon  patriotism. 
He  proceeded  therefore,  with  Lanfranc's  concurrence, 
to  subject  it  to  divers  restraints  by  no  means  accord- 
ant with  Hildebrand's  theory.  The  bishops'  estates 
were  in  Saxon  times  held  in  frankalmoign ;  WilHam 
introduced   a   baronial   tenure,    with   feudal   obliga- 


ELEVENTH  CENTURY.  15 

tions.  Hoyal  consent  was  required  for  the  passing  of 
canons,  for  the  egress  of  ecclesiastics  to  the  Continent, 
for  the  admission  of  Papal  letters  into  England,  even 
for  the  recognition  of  any  one  as  Pope.  The  bishop 
hitherto  sat  with  the  earl  in  the  county  court. 
Henceforth  there  were  distinct  civil  and  ecclesiastical 
courts ;  cases  concerning  clerks  being  tried  in  the 
latter,  and  no  bishop  being  empowered  to  implead  or 
excommunicate  a  layman  without  royal  consent. 

Lanfranc's  primacy  (1070-1089)  was  an  active  one. 
Several  2;reat  churches  were  built  or  re-    lanfranc  as 

,  Primate.  Eng- 

stored ;  and  a   transference   of   episcopal  land's  aversion 

to  clerical  celi- 

centres  irom  obscure  villages  gave  JLng-bacy.  itsinde- 
land  the  new  sees  of  Sarum,  Chichester,  Rome. 
Chester,  Lincoln,  and  Thetford  (moved  in  1101  to 
Norwich).  The  future  national  service-book,  the 
noted  "  Use  of  Sarum,"  was  composed  by  Osmund, 
bishop  of  that  see,  and  won  Lanfranc's  approval. 
Though  the  "  regular  "  or  monastic  clergy  ousted  the 
seculars  from  the  cathedrals,  the  Koman  view  of 
clerical  marriage  was  not  generally  admitted  in 
England.  We  find  the  Council  at  Winchester  in 
1076  allowing  the  rural  clergy  to  retain  their  wives. 
Nor,  we  may  add,  did  subsequent  synods  effect  practi- 
cal change  in  this  matter,  and  Pope  Paschal  II. 
admitted  that  sons  of  the  clergy  formed  the  "  greatest 
and  best  part"  of  the  English  priesthood.  Fitzjocelyn, 
a  Bishop's  son,  became  primate  in  the  next  century. 
In  fact,  down  to  Reformation  times,  married  priests 
and  sons  of  priests  continually  rose  to  high  places  in 
the  English  Church  and  State.  Equally  characteris- 
tic of  mediaeval  England  is  the  Anglo-Norman  atti- 


16       MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

tude  towards  Rome.  To  Gregory's  demand  of  fealty 
William  gave  a  flat  refusal.  He  appointed  Guitmund, 
a  priest's  son,  to  the  Archbishopric  of  Rouen,  without 
regard  to  Roman  prejudices;  and  he  kept  his  half- 
brother,  Odo,  Bishop  of  Bayeux,  in  prison,  despite 
Gregory's  assertion  of  clerical  immunity.  A  similar 
spirit  was  evinced  by  Lanfranc,  who  disregarded 
Gregory's  repeated  summons  to  Rome,  even  though 
threatened  with  deposition. 

The  oppression  and  greed  of  William  II.,  however, 
Anseimwith-  ii^pelled  the  next  primate,  Anselm — a 
ifTndHen^^T^^^^®  as  illustrious  as  Lanfranc — to  seek 
Lay  investiture,  redress  at  Rome.  In  his  opposition  to 
the  tyrant  (who  coolly  pocketed  the  revenues  of 
vacated  bishoprics  and  abbeys)  Anselm  had  the  sym- 
pathy of  the  people,  but  only  two  of  the  bishops 
ventured  to  side  with  him.  In  Italy  the  author  of 
the  Proslogion  and  Cur  Deus  Homo  was  received  with 
great  honour.  Anselm  took  a  prominent  part  at  the 
Council  of  Bari  (a.d.  1098),  where  a  vain  attempt 
was  made  to  heal  the  rupture  with  the  Greek 
Church.  But  Urban  II.,  who  had  received  large 
presents  from  Rufus,  gave  the  English  primate  no 
active  support.  When  this  king  died,  Anselm  re- 
turned to  England,  but  was  soon  at  issue  with  Henry 
I.  as  to  investiture  and  homage.  Both  these  prac- 
tices had  been  forbidden  by  the  Roman  Synod  of 
Lent  1099,  which  Anselm  had  attended.  Again  the 
bishops  are  found  siding  rather  with  the  king  than 
with  the  Romanising  primate.  Anselm  repeated  his 
visit  to  Rome,  and  again  Papal  inactivity  was  secured 
by  the  bribes  of  the  English  sovereign.     A  compromise 


ELEVENTH  CENTURY.  17 

was  at  last  accepted  by  Henry  in  a.d.  1105,  in  defer- 
ence to  Anselm's  threat  of  excommunication,  and  was 
confirmed  at  the  Council  at  Westminster,  a.d.  1107. 
It  was  decided  that  the  clergy  should  do  homage  for 
their  temporalities,  and  the  sovereign  cease  to  confer 
the  sacred  symbols,  the  staff  and  the  ring.  It  will  be 
seen  below  that  somewhat  similar  terms  were  the 
basis  of  a  concordat  between  the  Emperor  Heniy  Y. 
and  Pope  Calixtus  II.  fifteen  years  later. 

The   eleventh   century   is  marked    by  the   rise  of 
numerous  monastic  orders.     The  Carnal-      Monastic 
dolese  and  the   hermits    of    Vallombrosa   ^Tu^Sa 
have   been  noticed.     German  monachism      orde^of 
was  reformed  by  William  of  Hirschau,  in    Grainmont, 

''  '  Carthusians, 

1070,  whose  abbey  in  the  Black  Forest  Cistercians. 
became  the  centre  of  an  affiliation  like  that  of 
Clugny.  The  latter  order  was  now  at  the  height 
of  its  reputation.  Its  abbots  were  made  ex  officio 
cardinals  in  1120.  France  appears  specially  fruitful 
in  monastic  associations.  The  clergy  of  Avignon, 
by  a  reform  of  the  canonical  life,  established 
the  Canons  regular  of  St.  Augustine.  The  honi 
homines,  or  Order  of  Grammont,  originated  with 
Stephen,  a  nobleman  of  Auvergne,  and  eventually 
numbered  a  hundred  and  forty  cells.  The  Car- 
thusians were  at  first  a  limited  brotherhood,  esta- 
blished in  the  Chartreuse  by  Bruno  of  Rheims,  cir. 
1086.  Bruno  extended  the  fraternity  before  his 
death,  to  Calabria.  The  rigour  of  this  Order  (which 
is  notable  as  escaping  the  deterioration  usual  in  such 
systems),  made  its  progress  slow,  and  it  has  seldom 
included   many   female   adherents.       The   celebrated 

VOL,   II.  2 


18       MANdAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

Cistercian  Order  was  established  at  Citeaux  and 
Molesme  by  Robert  of  Champagne,  cir.  1098.  Its 
rule,  as  formulated  by  subsequent  superiors,  aimed 
at  reviving  Benedict's  original  system,  and  specially 
insisted  on  simplicity,  even  in  Church  furniture  and 
divine  service.  The  dress  of  the  Cistercians  was 
white.  T\Tiile  the  Cluniac  government  was  mon- 
archical, the  Cistercian  was  on  an  oligarchical  basis, 
the  heads  of  four  leading  houses  having  special 
prerogatives  in  the  conduct  of  affairs  and  in  the 
election  of  the  Abbot  of  Citeaux.  The  Cistercians 
were  the  first  Order  that  had  annual  general  Cliapters. 
In  1151  there  were  500  houses,  and  till  the  rise  of 
the  Friars  this  was  the  most  popular  of  aU  monastic 
societies.  The  Cistercian  lands  were  exempted  from 
tithe-payment  by  Innocent  II.  in  1132.  Lastly,  the 
fraternity  of  "  Poor  of  Christ,"  or  "  Order  of 
Fontevraud,"  founded  by  Kobert  of  Arbrissel  on  the 
confines  of  Brittany  (cir.  1095),  became  noted  as  a 
refuge  for  female  penitents.  This  society — men  as 
well  as  women — eventually  accepted  a  feminine 
headship. 

Already  there  had  appeared  in  Italy  and  France 
Heretics  in    some  forerunners  of  the  numerous  here- 

France  and 

Italy.  tical  teachers  of  the  twelfth  century.  A 
crazy  French  fanatic  named  Leutard,  came  forward 
cir.  A.D.  1000  with  pretentions  to  personal  inspiration. 
A  classical  paganism  was  set  on  foot  by  Vilgard,  a 
grammarian  of  Ravenna,  who  paid  with  his  Ufe  for 
his  intercourse  with  the  spirits  of  Yirgil,  Horace,  and 
Tuvenal.  Manich£eism  appeared  in  Aquitaine  in  1017, 
and  at  Orleans  in   1022,      Stephen  and   Lisoi,   two 


ELEVENTH  CEXTURY.  19 

pious  and  learned  ecclesiastics,  led  the  sect  at  Orleans, 
and  made  converts  in  Kigh  places.  They  rejected  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity  and  the  miraculous  evidences 
of  Scripture.  They  maintained  that  the  heavens  and 
the  earth  were  eternal  and  uncreated.  Apparently, 
too,  they  condoned  sins  of  sensuality,  and  considered 
the  ordinary  duties  of  reHgion  and  morality  super- 
fluous. Thii^teen  of  these  heretics  were  burnt ;  as 
also  were  other  Manich^ans  at  Monteforte  near  Turin, 
in  1044.  On  the  other  hand,  Gerard,  Bishop  of  Arras 
and  a  pupil  of  Gerbert,  recovered  similar  sectaries 
by  argument  and  instruction,  and  W'azo,  Bishop  of 
Liege,  expresses  himself  strongly  against  that  policy 
of  persecution  which  afterwards  obtained  such  fatal 
popularity. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

TWELFTH     CENTURY. 

THE  pontificate  of  Paschal  II.,  1099—1119,  pro- 
longed the  strife  between  the  Papacy  and  the 

Empire.  The  coronation  of  Henry  V.  at 
Empire  still  at  Home,  in  A.D.  1111,  was  preceded   by  a 

battle  between  the  Germans  and  Romans. 
The  Pope  and  his  Cardinals  were  actually  carried  away 
prisoners,  and  compelled  to  give  formal  sanction  to 
the  obnoxious  practice  of  investiture.  But  the  out- 
cries of  the  clerical  party  in  other  quarters  induced 
Paschal  to  renounce  this  engagement,  and  join  in 
anathematising  the  Emperor  for  extorting  it,  1112. 
Henry  thereupon  crossed  the  Alps  and  seized  the 
territories  which  the  great  Countess  Matilda  had, 
without  regard  to  the  rights  of  her  suzerain,  be- 
queathed to  the  Roman  See.  The  Papal  party  found 
a  more  able  leader  when  Guy,  Archbishop  of  Vienne, 
succeeded  to  the  Papacy  in  a.d.  1119,  as  Calixtus  II. 
Finding  it  impossible  to  bring  Henry  to  terms,  Calixtus 
adopted  the  tactics  of  Gregory  YII.  At  the  Council 
of  Rheims  he  anathematised  the  Emperor  and  absolved 
his  subjects  from  their  allegiance.  Adalbert,  Arch- 
bishop of  Mayence,  headed  an  army  against  Henry^ 
and  a  great  civil  war  seemed  to  be  impending. 


TWELFTH  CENTURY.  21 

France,  which  had  not  been  troubled  by  the 
investiture  controversy,  now  intervened  The  Concordat 
as  peacemaker.  A  compromise  was  of  Worms, 
suggested  by  Ivo,  Bishop  of  Chartres,  and  Godfrey, 
Abbot  of  Yendome.  Negotiations  between  the  hostile 
forces  succeeded,  and  a  concordat  was  finally  read 
before  a  vast  multitude  in  a  meadow  near  the  town 
of  Worms,  a.d.  1122.  The  terms  comprised  con- 
cessions on  both  sides.  Bishops  were  henceforth  to 
be  elected  without  simony  or  violence  in  the  presence 
of  the  Emperor  or  his  commissioners.  Investiture 
by  the  ring  and  staff  was  to  be  abandoned.  The 
Emperor  was  to  restore  to  the  Papacy  the  lands 
taken  from  it  since  his  father's  accession,  and  cease 
to  control  the  elections  to  St.  Peter's  chair.  On  the 
other  hand  the  bishop  elect  was  to  be  invested  with 
his  temporalities  by  the  sceptre,  before  he  could  be 
consecrated.  He  was  to  perform  the  usual  feudal 
duties,  and  was  to  be  a  genuine  vassal  of  the  Crown. 
It  is  plain  that  the  advantage,  though  not  com- 
mensurate with  the  aims  of  Hildebrand,  lay  on  the 
side  of  the  Church.  Henceforward  the  Emperor  is 
in  theory  disabled  from  control  of  episcopal  appoint- 
ments. This  settlement  of  the  long  conflict  was 
confirmed  in  1123  by  the  General  Lateran  Council. 
Henry's  death  in  1125,  and  the  election  of  the  Saxon, 
Lothair  II.,  the  candidate  supported  by  Adalbert, 
strengthened  the  position  of  the  Papal  party. 

In  1130  a  serious  schism  was  caused  by  the  rival 
elections  of  Innocent  II.  and  Anacletus  II.,  the  one 
the  representative  of  the  Frangipani,  the  other  of 
the  Leonine   faction.     Anacletus,  though  eventually 


22       MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

unsuccessful,   had    a    majority   at    Rome,  and   held 
St.    Peter's    by   force.     Innocent    retired 

The  Papal  „'^  ,  ,.  -r^  , 

schism  ended  to  France.  Here  the  support  of  Bernard, 
Lateran  CouncU  the  Cistcrciau  Abbot  of  Clairvaux  (for 
**  ■  the  .  next  twenty-five  years  the  most 
potent  personage  in  Christendom),  won  the  fugitive 
the  French  allegiance,  the  recognition  of  the  English 
Henry  I.,  the  active  support  of  the  Emperor  Lothair. 
The  saintly  Bernard  brings  back  the  true  Pontiff  in 
triumph  to  Italy.  Lothair  receives  from  Innocent 
the  Imperial  Crown  in  the  Lateran  Church.  Rome 
and  the  excommunicate  Roger  of  Sicily  alone  remain 
unconvinced.  It  is  not  till  Anacletus'  death  in  1138 
that  the  Pope  of  St.  Bernard  secures  the  Vatican  and 
the  whole  Roman  allegiance.  In  1139  the  General 
Lateran  Council — the  most  numerous  as  yet  held — 
brings  together  a  thousand  bishops,  with  other  pre- 
lates, to  depose  Anacletus'  partisans,  and  confirm  the 
insulted  dignity  of  St.  Peter's  by  fresh  enactments. 
One  of  these  contrasts  significantly  with  the  terms 
of  the  Concordat  of  Worms.  Of  every  clerical  func- 
tion it  is  declared,  "  A  Romani  pontificis  licentia, 
quasi  feodalis  juris  consuetudine  suscipitur,  et  sine 
ejus  permissione  legaliter  non  tenetur."  Officially  at 
least  the  clergy  are  to  be  the  Pope's  vassals. 

The    disloyalty    of    the    Romans    often    contrasts 

The  Roman    singularly  with  the  Pontiffs'  large  demands 

^Arnold*'"     abroad.     Before  Innocent  died,  Rome  was 

of  Brescia,     clamouring   for  a  Republic,  a    Senate,  a 

Patrician,  a  transfer  of  allegiance  from  the  Pope  to 

the    Emperor.      The   instigator   of    this   revolt   was 

Arnold  of  Brescia,  an  honest  but  visionary  reformer, 


TWELFTH  CENTURY.  23 

who  for  disparagement  of  the  Church's  temporal 
power  had  incurred  condemnation  and  banishment  at 
the  great  Council  of  1139.  The  insurgents  practically 
dethroned  the  Papacy.  A  Senate  was  constituted  on 
the  ancient  model.  A  Patrician  ruled  in  the  Vatican. 
Cardinals'  palaces  were  looted  or  destroyed.  Pope 
Lucius  dies  fighting  ;  Pope  Eugenius  flies  beyond  the 
Alps  to  become  a  satellite  of  the  great  Bernard ; 
Ai-nold  occupies  Pome  with  Swiss  forces.  The 
Eepublic  defies  five  successive  pontifis.  The  Enghsh 
Pope,  Hadrian  IV.,  at  last  appals  Rome  by  a  sweeping 
interdict,  1155.  The  people  side  with  the  clergy,  and 
compel  the  Senate  to  yield.  Hadrian  completed  this 
triumph  by  demanding  the  surrender  and  execution 
of  the  fugitive  Arnold,  as  the  price  of  the  Emperor's 
coronation.  Frederic  Barbarossa  readily  sacrificed  the 
assailant  of  autocratic  government. 

Contemporary  with  this  precursor  of  Wyclif ,  was  a 
doctrinal  reformer  of  larger  intellect  than  rpheoiosvof 
Arnold,  but  of  lower  moral  principle.  Ab6iard. 
The  name  of  the  French  theologian  Abelard  has 
been  already  mentioned  in  connection  with  the 
Nominalist  controversy.  Unrivalled  in  his  mastery 
of  the  dialectical  subtleties  of  the  day,  Abelard  both 
disproved  the  Nominalism  of  his  teacher  Poscellin, 
and  displaced  the  master  of  Pealist  wisdom,  Wiillam 
of  Champeaux.  His  theological  teaching  was  seemingly 
of  a  ^Adde  rational  character,  ill-suited  to  such  times. 
Abelard  incurred  his  first  condemnation  at  Soissons, 
1121,  on  the  charge  of  Sabellian  heresy.  Later  on, 
he  raised  a  storm  of  fury  by  unmasking  a  popular 
fallacy,  and  proving  that  St.  Denys  of  France  was  not 


24       MANUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY, 

identical  with  Dionysiiis  the  Areopagite  of  Acts  xvii. 
34,  He  incurred  his  final  condemnation  for  the 
'*  Sic  et  Non,"  a  work  which  claimed  immunity  for 
a  wide  and  tolerant  religious  attitude,  on  the  ground 
that  the  earliest  and  best  authors  gave  discordant 
answers  to  the  questions  at  issue.  It  was  sufficient 
to  condemn  the  book  that  Bernard  (who  had  not  the 
intellect  to  understand  it)  declared  it  heretical.  Con- 
victed by  the  Council  of  Sens,  a.d.  1140,  the  author 
appealed  in  vain  to  Rome.  Innocent's  respect  for  the 
miracle-worker  of  Clairvaux  induced  him  to  condemn 
Abelard  unheard.  At  the  intercession  of  the  Abbot 
Peter  he  was  permitted  to  retire  to  Clugny,  where  the 
unfortunate  lover  of  Heloise  ended  his  singular  career 
in  1142. 

The  second  crusade,  1145-48,  again  brings  Bernard 
The  Second  and  o^  the  scene.  To  his  preaching  and 
Third  Crusades,  jj^iracles  this,  the  most  unprovoked,  pre- 
tentious, and  disastrous  of  such  expeditions,  is  attribut- 
able. Pope  Eugenius  III.  was  persuaded  to  promise 
plenary  indulgences  to  the  soldiers  of  the  cross,  and 
Bernard  at  Yezelay  rivalled  the  rhetorical  successes  of 
Urban  II.  at  Clermont.  The  two  leading  princes  of 
Christendom,  Lewis  YII.  and  Conrad  III.,  were  in- 
duced to  join  the  cause.  Bernard,  in  one  respect,  showed 
wisdom.  He  declined  to  imitate  Peter  the  Hermit 
in  assuming  military  office.  The  expedition  was  fitly 
inaugurated  by  a  brutal  massacre  of  the  wretched 
Jews  at  Cologne,  Mayence,  and  other  towns.  We 
need  not  pursue  its  story.  Of  the  1,200,000  men  who 
followed  Lewis  and  Conrad,  most  were  destroyed  in 
Asia  Minor.     The  survivors  undertook  an  unsuccess- 


TWELFTH  CENTURY.  25 

ful  siege  of  Damascus,  and  only  a  small  fraction  of 
the  vast  armament  returned  to  Europe.  The  dis- 
sensions of  the  Christians  in  Palestine  continued  to 
strengthen  the  cause  of  Islam.  Saladin,  Prince  of 
Egypt  and  Syria,  in  1187  captured  Guy  of  Lusignan 
in  the  great  Battle  of  Tiberias,  and  took  possession 
of  Jerusalem.  The  news  hastened  the  death  of  Pope 
Urban  III.  His  successors  roused  Europe  to  a  third 
crusade  for  the  recovery  of  the  Holy  City.  Philip  II. 
of  France,  Richard  I.  of  England,  and  the  Emperor 
Frederic  I.  joined  this  expedition,  a.d.  1190 — 1192; 
but  its  only  achievement  was  the  capture  of  Acre. 
The  mutual  jealousies  of  the  leaders  and  the  pre- 
valence of  epidemics  induced  Kichard  to  make  a  treaty 
with  Saladin  in  1192.  Jerusalem  was  left  in  the 
hands  of  Mohammedans,  who  were  to  allow  Christian 
pilgrims  to  visit  the  holy  places. 

Until  the  pontificate  of  Hadrian  IV.,  the  existence 
of  the  Eoman  Pepublic,  and  the  un-  Conflict  with  the 
worldly  pietism  of  the  great  Bernard,  by  Hadrian  rv. 
combined  to  prevent  fresh  display  of  Papal  assump- 
tion. Bernard's  treatise,  addressed  to  his  admirer 
Eugenius  III.,  and  entitled  ''  On  Consideration," 
shows  that  the  great  Cistercian  could  dissever  the 
cause  of  religion  from  that  of  Papal  ambition.  The 
saint  of  Clairvaux  denounces  plainly  the  abuses  of 
the  pontifical  system.  He  declares  that  the  tem- 
poral pretensions  of  the  Papacy  are  modern, — derived, 
not  from  Peter,  but  Constantino.  The  Pope,  he 
urges,  should  be  the  brother,  not  the  lord  of  other 
bishops.  Bernard  died  in  1153.  The  firmness  of 
Hadrian   quelled  the  Poman   insurrection   in    1155. 


26       MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

A  struggle  ensues  between  the  Papacy  and  the  great 
Frederic  I.,  and  the  triumph  of  Gregory  YII.  at 
Canossa  is  repeated  by  Alexander  III.  at  Venice. 
Hadrian  revived  the  loftiest  pretensions  of  the 
Papacy.  It  was  this  Pope  who  granted  Ireland  to 
the  invading  Henry  II.  (1155),  and  the  language 
of  the  grant  expressed  assumptions  hitherto  unheard 
of.  All  islands  converted  to  Christianity  belong  to 
the  special  jurisdiction  of  St.  Peter.  As  an  acknow- 
ledgment of  his  gift,  the  Pope  is  to  receive  the  tribute 
of  Peter's  pence  from  the  conquered  island.  A  Papal 
pohcy  of  this  character  perforce  boded  rupture  with 
the  imperious  Frederic,  a  ruler  who  asserted  the  pre- 
tensions of  the  Holy  Empire  with  equal  loftiness. 
Frederic's  touchiness  or  Hadrian's  arrogance  roused 
a  quarrel  as  to  a  supposed  assertion  that  the  Empire 
was  a  benefice  of  the  Church.  Scarcely  had  Hadrian 
explained  away  the  ambiguous  language,  than  a  fresh 
rupture  was  precipitated.  Frederic,  in  crushing  the 
Lombard  municipalites,  had  encroached  on  Papal  ter- 
ritory, insulted  the  legates,  demanded  the  same 
homage  from  prelates  as  from  nobles.  Hadrian's 
complaint  of  these  aggressions  brought  on  an  angry 
correspondence.  The  excommunication  of  the  Em- 
peror was  imminent,  when  Hadrian  died,  to  be  suc- 
ceeded by  a  more  famous  exponent  of  Hildebrand's 
policy,  the  crafty  Alexander  III. 

Frederic  had  the  misfortune  to  abet  the  candidature 
of   the  anti-Pope   Victor   IV.,    who   was 

Alexander  III.  i  .      i  •  -i  t  r^ 

triumphs  over  accepted  at  his  bidding  by  the    Council 

of  Pa  via,   1160.     Alexander  secured  the 

recognition  of  France,  Spain,  England,    above  all  of 


TWELFTH  CENTURY.  27 

the  monastic  Orders  generally.  He  at  once  excom- 
municated both  Victor  and  Frederic.  The  great 
Council  of  Tours,  1163,  where  the  new  English 
primate  Becket  plays  a  prominent  part,  awards  the 
Papacy  to  Alexander.  Victor  dies.  The  new  anti- 
Pope  Paschal  III.  is  supported  only  by  Lombard  and 
German  prelates,  and  Alexander  in  1165  re-enters 
Kome  in  triumph.  Frederic  unwisely  prolonged  the 
schism.  He  brought  Paschal  to  Rome,  fought  his  way 
into  St.  Peter's,  and  had  his  Empress  crowned  by  the 
anti-Pope.  At  this  juncture  a  fearful  pestilence 
decimated  his  army,  and  took  off  his  leading  prelates. 
Lombardy  rose  in  arms.  The  Emperor  precipitately 
retreated  to  Germany,  and  in  1170  ceded  a  sulky 
recognition  of  Alexander's  pontificate.  A  deeper 
humiliation  was  in  store  for  the  great  Hohenstaufen 
sovereign.  The  Italian  cities  cemented  a  formidable 
league.  Alexander  was  its  avowed  head,  and  Manuel 
the  Greek  Emperor  courted  its  alliance.  At  Legnano, 
1176,  the  forces  of  the  League  secured  a  decisive 
victory.  Frederic  is  forced  to  demand  a  truce,  and 
to  seek  the  services  of  Alexander  as  a  mediator.  At 
Venice  the  great  Emperor  prostrates  himself  before 
the  pontiff,  and  promises  a  future  cession  of  the 
domains  of  the  Countess  of  Matilda.  The  excom- 
munication is  withdrawn.  Pope  and  Emperor  are 
again  at  one,  till  the  pontificate  of  Innocent  III. 
We  now  turn  to  England,  where  the 

°  The  hierarchical 

martyrdom   of   Becket,    1173,    and    the  cause  in  England, 
penance   of    Henry    11. ,   contributed   to  Constitutions  of 
enhance  the  pretentions  of  the  Papacy.         ^^^^  °"' 
As  in  Italy,  so  in  England,  the  hierarchical  contest 


28       MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

is  entangled  with  a  democratic  movement.  The 
cause  of  the  arrogant  Becket  is  fortunately  allied 
with  that  of  an  oppressed  populace.  His  posthumous 
triumph  effects  more  for  constitutional  freedom  than 
for  priestly  immunity.  The  tendency  of  Anglo- 
Norman  legislation  in  respect  to  the  clergy  has  been 
already  noticed.  The  Constitutions  of  Clarendon, 
1164,  intensified  its  rigour.  Practically  this  con- 
cordat, which  Becket  signed  under  pressure,  ruled 
that  a  criminous  ecclesiastic  should  be  both  degraded, 
and  also  punished  as  a  layman.  It  vested  ecclesias- 
tical appeals  in  the  king,  and  gave  him  the  revenues 
and  right  of  appointment  in  vacant  benefices.  The 
Conqueror's  law  was  included,  that  no  prelate  might 
leave  England  without  royal  sanction.  It  will  be 
observed  that  the  democratic  programme  which  was 
embodied  in  the  subsequent  Charta  directly  traverses 
these  demands.  The  claims  of  the  priesthood,  and 
indirectly  of  every  class,  to  be  tried  by  its  peers, 
fairly  taxed,  and  conceded  its  rights  free  of  purchase, 
were  personified  by  Becket,  when  he  retracted  his 
assent  to  the  Constitutions.  The  English  bishops, 
however,  as  in  Anselm's  case,  side  with  the  imperious 
sovereign  and  his  barons,  when  Becket,  in  defiance  of 
the  Constitutions,  leaves  England  to  appeal  to  Rome. 
Lewis  VII.,  from  personal  rancour  to  Henry,  warmly 
abetted  the  fugitive  Primate's  cause.  Alexander  util- 
ized it  in  Roman  interests,  inducing  Becket  to  resign 
and  receive  again  from  the  Papacy  his  archiepiscopal 
office.  Henry  now  inhumanly  evicted  all  Becket's 
kindred,  refused  Peter's  Pence,  even  joined  Frederic 
in     his    support    of     the     anti-Pope    Paschal    III. 


TWELFTH  CENTURY.  29 

Alexander  gives  Becket  a  legatine  power,  and  Becket 
uses  it  to  excommunicate  all  the  fautors  of  the  Con- 
stitutions of  Clarendon,  1166.  Alexander,  however, 
did  not  openly  abet  this  bold  procedure.  At  this 
time,  his  own  position  was  critical.  And  to  the  last 
he  plays  a  double  part,  influenced  perhaps  by  jealousy 
of  the  English  Primacy.  Protracted  negotiations 
were  at  last  suddenly  ended  by  a  reconciliation 
between  Henry  and  Becket,  at  Fretteville.  The 
Primate  returns,  to  wreak  his  vengeance  on  the 
royalist  bishops,  specially  on  those  of  York  and 
London.  The  protest  of  these  suspended  prelates 
provoked  the  King  to  that  passionate  utterance  which 
inspired  the  assassination  in  Canterbury  Cathedral. 
The  Church's  triumph  was  secured  by  this  bloody 
deed.  All  Christendom  reprobates  it.  Thomas  of 
Canterbury  becomes  a  saint,  is  renowned  through 
Christendom  for  his  wonder-working  powers,  and 
inspires  the  English  populace  in  the  approaching 
struggle  for  constitutional  rights.  To  remove  the 
interdict  inflicted  by  Alexander,  Henry  humbles 
himself  in  Avranches  Cathedral,  and  an  abrogation 
of  the  statutes  of  Clarendon  is  one  of  the  conditions 
of  his  purgation. 

The  last  episode  in  Alexander's  pontificate  is  the 
General  Lateran  Council  of  1179.  This  The  Third 
vested  the  election  of  pontifi*s  in  the  '^1179?^*'  ' 
enlarged  Cardinals'  College,  and  gave  the  Papacy  to 
the  candidate  who  secured  two-thirds  of  the  votes. 
The  crusade  against  the  heretics  of  France  was  here 
sanctioned.  The  Council  also  made  canonization  of 
saints  a  Papal  instead  of  a  concihar  prerogative.     It 


30       MANUAL    OF  CHURCH  HISTOHY. 

was  alleged  that,  as  one  of  the  "  greater  causes," 
it  was  perforce  centred  in  the  Church's  head.  The 
Papal  history  after  Alexander's  death  in  1181  is  of 
little  interest,  till  the  close  of  the  century  introduces 
the  strong  rule  of  Innocent  III.,  1198 — 1216. 

The  religious  Orders   of   most  note   are   now   the 
Monasticism  in  Cistcrcians  and  Cluniacs.     The  fame  of 

tms  century. 

Cistercians.     Bernard  SO  aided   the  Cistercian   cause, 

Cluniacs.    In-  i     i  ,  -, 

dependence  of  that  he  may  DO  regarded  as  the  second 
Houses.  founder  of  the  Order.  A  hundred  and 
sixty  houses  owed  to  him  their  origin  or  their  rules. 
The  Cluniacs  regarded  with  a  jealous  eye  the  popu- 
larity of  Citeaux,  and  Bernard  was  provoked  to  a 
literary  warfare  by  William  the  Cluniac  Abbot  of 
Thierry.  Bernard's  chief  contention  is  that  the 
Cluniac  discipline  is  sapped  by  luxurious  living  and 
gorgeous  services.  The  allegation  was  true.  But 
degeneracy,  consequent  on  popularity,  is  equally  ap- 
parent in  the  Cistercian  houses  before  the  century's 
close.  Monasticism  had  made  rapid  progress  in 
England.  The  jealousy  of  episcopal  control,  now 
everywhere  exhibited  by  the  monks,  was  specially  con- 
spicuous in  the  Canterbury  houses  of  St.  Augustine's 
and  Christchurch.  The  latter  successfully  appeals  to 
Rome  (ever  ready  to  side  with  monks  against  bishops), 
when  Archbishop  Baldwin  tries  to  found  a  new 
college  at  Hackington,  1189.  St.  Augustine's,  with 
its  claims  to  privileges  ancient  as  King  Ethelbert,  is 
continually  asserting  its  independence  of  the  Primates. 
It  defies  the  interdict  with  which  Archbishop  Theobald, 
in  1148,  assails  King  Stephen.  Contentions  are  rife 
between    the  other    episcopal  centres  and  the  great 


TWELFTH  CENTURY.  31 

monasteries ;  between  Lincoln  and  St.  Albans, 
Chichester  and  Battle,  Bath  and  Glastonbury, 
Sariim  and  Malmesbury. 

A  new  phase  was  given  to  the  life  of  canonical 
fraternities  by  Norbert,  a  German  eccle-  Premonstraten- 
siastic,  cir.  1120.  From  Premontr^,  in  ^^*^'* 
Picardy,  Norbert's  system  spread  over  Europe,  and 
for  a  long  time  retained  an  unimpaired  character. 
The  Premonstratenses  combined  monastic  austerity 
with  practical  priestly  duties,  thus  anticipating  the 
friars  of  the  next  century.  In  imitation  of  the 
Cistercians,  this  Order  held  annual  Chapters,  and 
endowed  their  greater  houses  with  peculiar  privi- 
leges. 

The  crusades  gave  to  the  monastic  impulse  a  wider 
range  and  a  new  aim.  The  Carmelites  CarmeUtes  and 
were  a  hermit  settlement,  established  by  Fraternities. 
Berthold  the  Calabrian,  on  Mount  Carmel,  cir.  1160. 
After  the  expulsion  of  the  Latins  from  Palestine, 
this  fraternity  dispersed,  to  appear  in  Europe  as  one 
of  the  thirteenth-century  mendicant  Orders.  The 
Carmelites  attained  great  popularity.  Their  auda- 
cious pretence  to  trace  theii*  origin  to  the  prophet 
Elijah  was  exposed  by  the  learned  Bollandists,  in  the 
seventeenth  century.  A  more  characteristic  creation 
of  the  crusades  is  the  military  brother,  the  Knight 
Hospitaller,  Knight  Templar,  or  Teutonic  Knight  of 
St.  Mary.  The  Knights  Hospitallers  or  Knights  of 
St.  John  were  evolved  by  a  monastery  founded  at 
Jerusalem  for  the  benefit  of  Latin  pilgrims  cir.  1050. 
Enriched  by  endowments,  this  institution  assumed  a 
martial  character  under  the  presidency  of   Raymund 


32       MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

du  Puy  in  1120.  Its  adherents  were  divided  into 
three  classes — knights,  clergy,  and  serving  brethren ; 
and  its  military  members  soon  distinguished  them- 
selves by  signal  acts  of  valour.  The  Hospitallers 
settled  after  the  loss  of  Jerusalem  first  in  Cyprus, 
then  in  Rhodes,  finally  in  Malta,  given  them  by 
Charles  V.,  and  retained  till  modern  times.  The 
history  of  the  Templars  is  less  respectable.  They 
were  professedly  an  association  of  knights  for  the 
defence  of  pilgrims,  instituted  by  Hugh  des  Payens, 
and  sanctioned  by  the  Council  of  Troyes,  1128.  The 
name  was  derived  from  their  first  residence,  a  house 
near  the  supposed  ruins  of  the  Jewish  temple,  allotted 
them  by  Baldwin  II.  Noble  descent,  and  three 
years'  service  against  the  infidels,  were  the  qualifica- 
tions for  admission,  and  the  members  took  vows  of 
chastity,  poverty,  and  obedience.  Within  fifty  years 
this  Order  enjoyed  a  royal  revenue ;  and,  despite  the 
severe  rules  of  its  founders,  excited  general  hatred 
by  its  gi'eediness,  cruelty,  insolence,  and  depravity. 
Hence  its  abolition  (1312)  by  order  of  Pope  Clement  V., 
acting  under  the  pressure  of  Philip  the  Fair. 

The  Teutonic  Knights  of  St.  Mary  had  theii^  origin 
in  a  German  nursing  brotherhood,  extemporised  at 
the  siege  of  Acre  in  1190.  Patronised  by  princes  and 
pontifi*s,  this  Order  gradually  acquired  great  emolu- 
ments. It  was  employed  by  the  thirteenth-century 
Popes  to  efiect  the  compulsory  conversion  of  Prussia. 
The  siege  of  Acre  gave  bu'th  to  a  similar  establish- 
ment of  English  Hospitallers;  other  military  orders 
for  the  defence  of  the  faith  and  protection  of  pilgrims 
arose  about  the  same  time  in  Spain. 


TWELFTH  CENTURY.  33 

The  twelfth  century  was  one  of  increasing  intel- 
lectual activity,  and  we  notice  the  associa-  Learnine-TJni- 
tion  of  students  in  "  universities  "  as  one  ^ersities,  Law- 

schools  and 

of  the  striking  features  of  the  time.  The  Canon-law. 
University  of  Paris  owes  its  origin  to  William  of 
Champeaux,  Abelard,  and  their  contemporaries. 
Oxford  was  known  as  a  school  of  civil  law  in  the 
middle  of  this  century.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
next,  Cambridge  was  famous  as  a  seat  of  learning. 
The  claim  of  the  Lombard  cities  to  autonomy  led  to 
a  revival  of  the  study  of  Roman  law,  and  the  foun- 
dation of  the  noted  law-schools  of  Bologna.  It  was 
only  natural  that  a  desire  should  be  felt  to  treat 
Church  law  in  the  same  scientific  spirit.  Hence  the 
production  by  Gratian,  a  monk  of  Bologna  (cir.  1151), 
of  the  compendium  of  patristic,  conciliar,  and  papal 
sentences,  styled  "  Concordantia  discordantium  regu- 
larum."  In  this  work,  of  course,  the  False  Decretals 
play  a  prominent  part.  Canon-law  from  this  time 
became  a  special  study,  and  had  its  professors  at  the 
universities.  The  sciences  of  the  old  trivium  and 
quadrivium  w^ere  now  generally  grouped  under  the 
faculty  of  "  philosophy."  The  other  faculties  were 
civil  jurisprudence,  medicine,  and  theology. 

The  scholastic  dialectics,  by  which  theology  had 
been  represented,   gave   place  in  public 

^  \  .  -r^  Theology-Peter 

esteem  to  a  more  dogmatic  system.  Peter  Lombard's  Sen- 
Lombard,  Bishop  of  Paris  (d.  1164),  Festivals.  EeHcs. 
had  issued  the  Four  Books  of  Sentences,  ^^iseiices. 
a  kind  of  foil  to  the  speculative  "  Sic  et  Non  "  of 
Abelard.  Christendom  gave  a  slavish  adhesion  to 
the  Master  of  the  Sentences  :  England  alone  produced 

VOL.    II.  3 


34       MANUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

a  hundred  and  sixty-four  expositions  of  this  noted 
text-book.  To  this  work  is  to  be  assigned  the  future 
popular  numeration  of  seven  sacraments.  We  notice 
that  Trinity  Sunday  was  added  to  the  Church  fes- 
tivals in  this  century.  Becket  established  its  com- 
memoration in  England.  Its  special  office  was  first 
appointed  by  Pope  John  XXII.  (1316-34),  who 
greatly  emphasized  its  observance  throughout  Western 
Christendom.  The  multiplication  of  offices  in  honour 
of  the  Virgin,  the  commemoration  of  her  "  Immaculate 
Conception"  (cir.  1140),  the  .increased  fabrication  of 
rehcs,  and  the  development  of  the  system  of  indul- 
gences by  the  crusades,  fairly  illustrate  the  character 
of  twelfth-century  religion. 

The  Greek  Church  now  lay  steeped  in  superstition. 
Christianity  in  ^  singular  deference  was  paid  to  the 
the  East.  Emperor's  ecclesiastical  supremacy,  and 
the  Emperor  Manuel  (ace.  1143)  is  found  enforcing 
new  dogmas  on  the  relationship  of  Christ  to  the 
Father.  The  subject  of  reunion  was  from  time  to 
time  broached  both  in  East  and  West.  Friendly  dis- 
cussions on  the  subjects  of  difference  occurred,  but 
without  practical  result.  Nestorian  Christianity 
appears  to  have  gained  a  footing  in  the  far  East, 
and  legends  of  the  grandeur  of  Prester  John,  the 
priest-sovereign  of  Tartary,  were  now  rife.  To 
analyse  these  stories  is  unnecessary.  Tartar  Chris- 
tianity did  not  survive  the  successful  invasion  of  the 
great  Genghis  Khan,  cir.  1202. 

In  connexion  with  missions,  the  labours  of  Malachy 
(d.  1148)  among  the  savages  of  Ireland  should  be 
noticed,    as  bringing  the   island  into  closer  relations 


TWELFTH  CENTURY.  35 

with  Rome.     It  was  regarded  by  the  chronicler  as 
"contrary  to  the  dignity  of  the  Church  of 
Canterbury  "  that  a  cardinal-legate  held  a  Scandinavia, 
synod  at  Kells,  and  bestowed  the  honour  of      °'"®^*^^*' 
the  pall  on  the  episcopates  of  Armagh,  Cashel,  Dublin, 
and  Tuam.     The  results  of  Pope  Hadrian's  subsequent 
commission   to  the  English  king  to  invade   Ireland 
(1155)  belong  to  secular  history.     Christianity  con- 
tinued to  make  progress  in  Scandinavia,  and  a  suc- 
cessful mission  to  Pomerania  was  undertaken  by  Otho, 
Bishop  of  Bamberg,  aided  by  Boleslav,  King  of  Poland, 
cir.  1125. 

Of  the  sectaries  of  this  century  it  is  difficult  to 
speak  precisely.     Revolt  from  the  super- 

.  .  ,  Sects-Bogo- 

stitions  and  abuses  noticeable  in  the  mUes,  and 
Church  seems  usually  to  have  engendered 
Gnostic  proclivities  and  strange  moral  tenets.  The 
Bogomiles  (a  term  said  to  mean  "Friends  of  God") 
were  a  Bulgarian  sect  of  this  character.  They  esta- 
blished themselves  in  Constantinople,  under  one  Basil, 
and  were  cruelly  persecuted  by  the  Emperor  Alexius. 
In  the  West  a  blasphemous  and  licentious  fanatic, 
named  Tanchelm,  disturbed  Antwerp,  cir.  1125.  In 
Gascony,  a  more  respectable  heresiarch,  Peter  of  Bruis, 
by  denouncing  prevalent  ecclesiastical  abuses,  and  pro- 
mulgating his  own  system  of  primitive  Christianity, 
caused  great  commotion.  The  mob,  irritated  by  his 
destruction  of  crosses  and  churches,  seized  the  founder 
of  the  "  Petrobusians,"  and  burnt  him,  cir.  1115;  but 
his  system  received  a  new  development  from  the 
Cluniac  monk  Henry,  who  was  at  last  confuted  by 
the  great  Bernard  at  Albe. 


36       MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

In  divers  parts  of  Europe  sectaries,  who  were 
charsjed  with  Manichsean  tenets,  were  per- 
Cathari,  secuted  by  the  authorities.  The  German 
"Publicani"  were  found  preaching  at 
Oxford,  and  were  cruelly  treated  by  Henry  II. 
Possibly  the  Publicani  were  allied  to  the  Bulgarian 
Cathari,  who  at  this  time  infested  Lombardy  and 
Southern  France,  and  were  persecuted  by  Raymond  V., 
Count  of  Toulouse.  The  third  Lateran  Council  of 
1179  sanctioned  a  crusade  against  these  unhappy 
sectaries.  Their  chief  ofience  was  their  blasphemous 
invective  against  Christian  institutions,  and  their 
lives  appear  to  have  been  irreproachable.  Henry  of 
Clairvaux,  a  Papal  legate,  is  said  to  have  carried  out 
the  Lateran  decree  with  great  cruelty;  but  the  sect 
continued  to  maintain  its  hold  in  Languedoc.  The 
Waldenses,  or  Poor  Men  of  Lyons,  probably  owed 
their  origin  to  Peter  Waldo,  a  Lyonnese  merchant, 
cir.  1170.  They  appear  to  have  diso^vned  the 
Manichseism  of  the  Cathari,  and  sought,  like  the 
Petrobusians,  to  revive  a  primitive  Christianity  based 
on  the  New  Testament.  In  fact  their  teaching,  in 
many  points,  reminds  us  of  Puritan  Protestantism. 
Their  lives  appear  to  have  been  moral  and  even 
exemplary.  But  they  necessarily  suffered  under  the 
persecution  directed  in  the  next  century  against  the 
Albigenses  or  Cathari  of  Languedoc  ("  Albigesium"). 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

THIRTEENTH    CENTURY. 

THE    prominent  figure  at    the  beginning  of  this 
century    is   Innocent    III.,   who   uniting   the 
boldness     of     Hildebrand       with      the 
astuteness  of  Alexander  III.,  brings  the  of  Papacy  under 

-r,  I      ••  '      e  X  1      Innocent  III. 

I'apacy  to  its  acme  oi  power.  Innocent 
began  an  audacious  policy  abroad  by  commendable 
reforms  at  home.  He  abolished  the  ostentation  and 
luxury  of  the  Papal  court,  and  even  set  limits  on  its 
venality.  At  the  same  time,  hoAvever,  he  persuaded 
the  Roman  prefect,  an  imperial  officer,  to  receive 
investiture,  and  the  Roman  citizens  to  swear  obedience 
to  the  Pope. 

The  heir  of  the   Hohenstaufen    family    was    now 
the  infant   Frederic    II.      Remembrance 

-  Contest  for  the 

or  the  nonage  or  Henry  I V .  suggested  to  Empire-PhUip 
many  the  advisability  of  setting  this  child 
aside  in  favour  of  a  competent  emperor.  Two  can- 
didates for  the  imperial  office  appeared, — Philip  of 
Swabia,  Frederic's  uncle,  and  Otho  the  Saxon,  nephew 
of  Richard  of  England,  and  his  viceroy  in  Poitou. 
France  abetted  Philip,  England  Otho.  The  latter 
had  the  sympathy  of  most  ecclesiastics.  Both  how- 
ever obtain  archiepiscopal  coronation,  and  Innocent  is 


38       MANUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

asked  to  adjudicate.  He  makes  the  bold  assumption 
that  to  the  Papacy  belongs  ''  principally  and  finally," 
the  disposal  of  the  empire,  decides  in  favour  of  Otho, 
and  summons  his  rival  to  resign.  A  ten  years'  war 
was  the  consequence,  in  which  prelates  so  actively 
engaged  that  martial  prowess  became  a  qualification 
for  the  episcopal  office. 

On    the    assassination    of    Philip    in    1208,    Otho 

Innocent  sub-  secured    peace    by   marrying   his   young 
'"^!ranf  °  daughter.      After    pledging    himself    to 

Frederic  II.  ^espcct  ecclesiastical  immunities,  extirpate 
heresy,  and  recover  the  territory  of  old  belonging 
to  the  Papacy,  he  was  crowned  by  Innocent  at 
Rome.  This  is  the  sole  instance  of  an  emperor 
admitting  at  coronation  that  he  was  raised  "  by  the 
grace  of  God  and  the  Apostolic  see."  Otho  however 
quickly  forgot  his  obligation,  and  proceeded  to  occupy 
the  territory  bequeathed  by  the  Countess  Matilda. 
Innocent  promptly  anathematized  him,  and  released 
his  subjects  from  allegiance,  1210.  Otho's  pride  and 
covetousness  had  already  made  him  offensive  to  the 
princes  and  prelates  of  Germany.  These  shortly  rose 
in  arms,  declared  him  to  have  forfeited  the  empire,  and 
with  Innocent's  approval,  elevated  the  Hohenstaufen 
Frederic  II.,  now  aged  sixteen.  Philip  Augustus 
abetted  Frederic's  cause.  Otho,  defeated  at  the  battle 
of  Bouvines,  1214,  relinquishes  his  claim,  and  the 
young  emperor  pays  for  Innocent's  support  with 
oaths  similar  to  those  broken  by  Otho.  He  also 
makes  the  Pope  the  guardian  of  his  infant  son,  the 
titular  King  of  Sicily,  and  promises  that  the  Sicilian 
kingdom  shall  alw^ays  be  separated  from  the  Empire. 


THIRTEENTH  CENTURY.  39 

Besides  thus  twice  awarding  the  imperial  crown, 
Innocent  compelled  the  sovereigns  of  innocent's 
France  and  England  to  bow  to  his  deci-  *F™?an^ 
sions.  His  interposition  on  the  side  of  England. 
the  outraged  French  queen  Ingeburga,  in  1200, 
commands  our  sympathy.  An  interdict  on  the 
French  nation  speedily  impelled  Philip  II.  to  promise 
submission  and  display  Ingeburga  publicly.  But  it 
was  not  till  1213  that  he  fulfilled  his  pledge  and 
restored  her  to  her  rights  as  wife  and  queen.  In 
England,  Innocent's  first  triumph  was  his  securing 
the  nomination  to  the  primacy  in  1207.  The  con- 
flicting electoral  claims  of  the  king,  the  bishops,  and 
the  monks  of  Christchurch,  had  caused  a  contested 
election.  It  was  agreed  to  appeal  to  Rome.  Innocent 
set  aside  the  rival  candidatures,  and  appointed  Stephen 
Langton.  John  vented  his  disappointment  by  eject- 
ing and  plundering  the  monks.  The  Pope  laid 
England  under  an  interdict  (a.d.  1208),  which  the 
tyrant  defied  for  six  years.  A  personal  anathema 
was  added  without  efl'ect.  John  continued  to  avenge 
himself  by  despoiling  the  prelates  and  clergy.  Philip 
of  France  was  now  invited  by  Innocent  to  head  a 
crusade  against  England.  The  expedition  had  been 
resolved  on  by  a  French  assembly  at  Soissons  before 
John  tendered  his  disgraceful  submission  to  the  legate 
Pandulf.  Innocent's  terms  included  a  formal  ac- 
knowledgment that  the  kingdoms  of  England  and 
Ireland  were  fiefs  of  Kome,  and  a  pledge  to  pay 
the  Papal  suzerain  a  yearly  tribute  of  one  thousand 
marks. 

Against   this   depraved    and   despicable   king    the 


40       MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

barons   now   rose,    with   their   charter    of    liberties. 

Langton   was   their    champion,    and   the 

opposition  to  first   article   in   Magna    Charta   raised  a 

*^°*  *  bulwark  against  those  invasions  of  clerical 

rights,  which  had  been  so  frequent  since  the  Conquest 

(June,  1215).     The   Church   of   England  was  to  be 

"  free,  and  have  her  rights  entire,  and    her  liberties 

uninjured."      But    liberty    of   the    subject   and   the 

prerogatives  of  national  Churches  were  little  valued 

by  Popes  of  Hildebrand's  school.     Innocent  is  now 

found  on  the  side  of  John.     He  tries  hard  to  annul 

the   charter,    excommunicates   all   who   shall   oppose 

the  king,  and  severely  censures,  and  even  suspends 

Archbishop  Langton. 

The  vigour  of  Innocent's  rule  was  equally  felt  in 
Innocent's  ^^®  ^^^^  important  States.  Hungary,  dis- 
influence  in    turbed  bv  the  rival  claims  of  two  royal 

Hungary,  Spain,  *'  *' 

Laimatia,     brothers,  was  quieted  by  his  intervention. 

Bulgaria,  ^  ~i.  J 

Armenia.  Peter  of  Aragon  came  to  Rome  to  lay  his 
regalia  on  the  altar  of  St.  Peter's,  and  receive  inves- 
titure as  a  Papal  vassal.  It  was  Innocent  who 
incited  the  Spanish  Christians  to  that  combination 
against  the  Mohammedans,  which  efiected  the  great 
victory  of  Navas  de  Tolosa,  in  1212,  and  finally 
checked  Moslem  incursions  from  Africa.  The  princes 
of  Dalmatia  and  Bulgaria  rendered  allegiance  to  this 
great  pontiff.  The  Patriarch  of  Armenia,  ignoring 
the  rupture  between  East  and  West,  accepted  a 
pall  from  Rome,  and  pledged  himself  to  attend  the 
"Western  Councils. 

Europe  was  not  yet  sickened  of  the  crusading 
movement.      Though  no  prince  of  the  highest  rank 


THIRTEENTH  CENTURY.  41 

joined    the  expedition   of   1202,    some   two   hundred 
thousand   men    were    persuaded    by    the 

^  *^  The  Fourth 

preaching  and  miracles  of  Fulk  of  Neuilly,  Crusade,  and 
and  Innocent's  influence  secured  this  force  occupation  of 
the  aid  of  the  Venetian  navy.  This  fourth  Constantinople, 
crusade  produced  important  results.  The  army  was 
induced  to  join  the  cause  of  Alexius,  son  of  the 
deposed  emperor,  Isaac,  against  his  usurping  name- 
sake. But  when  he  had  been  enthroned,  differences 
arose  which  resulted  in  a  brutal  sack  of  Constantinople 
by  the  Western  troops.  By  agreement  of  the  French 
and  Venetian  contingents,  the  imperial  crown  was 
now  conferred  on  Baldwin,  Count  of  Flanders,  and 
the  Byzantine  patriarchate  on  the  Venetian  Morosini. 
Both  appointments  were  sanctioned  by  the  Pope  in 
the  usual  authoritative  style,  a.d.  1205.  But  the 
opposition  of  the  Greeks  and  the  mutual  jealousies  of 
the  French  and  Venetians,  rendered  this  annexation 
unprofitable  to  the  Western  Church.  A  series  of 
weak  and  impoverished  Latin  rulers  ended  in  1261, 
when  Genoa,  moved  by  hatred  of  Venice,  aided  the 
Greeks  to  dispossess  Baldwin  II.,  and  enthroned 
Michael  Palaeologus. 

Innocent's  reign  bears  the  odium  of  the  "Children's 
Crusade,"  cir.  1213,  resulting  in  the  deaths  .^^^  children's 
or   enslavement   of   thousands  of   adven-  Crusade,  and 

Albigensian 

turous  boys.  Yet  more  discreditable  was  Crusade, 
the  crusade  against  the  Albigenses,  or  Cathari  of 
Southern  France  in  1209.  The  practice  of  extirpating 
false  opinions  by  cruel  deaths  was  now  in  general 
favour,  though  Bernard  and  other  noted  divines  had 
denounced  it.     The  successes  of  the  Cathari  in  Italian 


42        MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

towns  had  induced  Innocent,  in  1207,  to  order  that 
the  authorities  should  deUver  all  heretics  ''  to  the 
secular  arm"  for  punishment.  The  followers  of 
Amalric,  a  Parisian  sectary,  who  preached  an  immoral 
kind  of  Pantheism,  had  been  lately  burnt.  To  this 
crusade  in  Languedoc,  Philip  II.  sent  fifteen  thousand 
soldiers.  Raymond  YI.  of  Toulouse,  banned  and 
disgraced  for  complicity  in  the  murder  of  a  Papal 
legate,  was  compelled  by  Innocent  to  join  the  expe- 
dition. But  the  responsibility  of  its  atrocities  rests 
chiefly  with  Simon  de  Montfort,  Earl  of  Leicester,  a 
leader  renowned  for  valour  and  for  devotion  to  the 
Church.  The  town  of  Beziers,  where  both  orthodox 
and  heretics  refused  admission  to  the  invaders,  was 
the  scene  of  a  fearful  butchery.  At  Carcassonne, 
which  capitulated,  some  four  hundred  heretics  were 
hanged  or  burnt.  Deeds  of  even  more  revolting 
character  were  perpetrated  by  De  Montfort  in  other 
towns.  The  heretics  retaliated  with  lil^e  barbarities, 
and  were  at  last  openly  abetted  by  Raymond.  The 
horrors  of  this  Albigensian  war  ended  in  1216,  with 
the  elevation  of  De  Montfort  as  prince  of  the  subju- 
gated territory. 

An  important  outcome  of  this  barbarous  expedition 
was    the    institution    of    the    Preachinsr 

The  Mendicants.        .  -r-x  •  .^  i       c  i 

Dominic  de  Priars.  Dominic  de  Guzman,  the  founder 
Francis  of  of  the  Black  Friars,  had  taken  part  in 
the  invasion  of  the  Albigensian  territory. 
Moved  by  the  example  of  the  heretics,  he  announced 
the  importance  of  "meeting  zeal  by  zeal,  preaching 
lies  by  preaching  truth."  A  brotherhood  was  accord- 
ingly formed,  devoted  to  preaching  and  the  confutation 


THIRTEENTH  CENTURY.  43 

of  heresy.  The  Dominican  fraternity  at  once  won 
the  approval  of  Bishop  Fulk  of  Toulouse.  Innocent 
somewhat  tardily  gave  it  his  sanction,  a.d.  1215. 
From  Languedoc  the  Dominicans,  side  by  side  with  the 
Franciscans,  made  their  way  throughout  Europe.  The 
life  of  Dominic's  contemporary,  the  wonder-working 
Francis  of  Assisi,  belongs  to  the  province  of  hagiology. 
His  fraternity  begins  when  he  sets  forth  as  a 
preacher  of  repentance,  with  eleven  disciples,  whom, 
with  Innocent's  sanction,  he  incorporates  in  a  mis- 
sionary guild,  cir.  1210.  The  Grey  Franciscan  Friars, 
whose  ostentatious  humility  was  indicated  in  their 
appellation,  "  Friars  Minorite,"  had  attracted  five 
thousand  adherents  in  1219.  Their  first  formal 
charter  was  gi^anted  by  Honorius  III.  in  1223.  The 
work  of  the  two  Orders  and  their  less  noted  imitators 
in  many  respects  resembles  that  which  Wesley  and 
Whitefield  initiated  in  modern  England.  Discarding 
book-learning,  the  friars  appealed  to  the  illiterate 
masses  by  the  powder  of  fervent  oratory.  Their  rugged 
eloquence  was  supplemented  by  lives  of  self-denial 
and  active  charity.  Both  brotherhoods  were  forbidden 
to  hold  property,  and  the  preachers  relied  for  sub- 
sistence on  a  system  of  mendicancy. 

That   the   friars   inspired   the   Church    with   new 
vigour,  and  revived  a  practical  Christianity    subsequent 
by  their  humane  labours  among  the  poor  "^MScInt^ 
and   the   plague -stricken,    is    undeniable.       Orders. 
But   it   is   equally   plain   that  in   these   Orders   the 
inevitable  degeneracy  came  with  unusual  speed.     In 
1230   a   bull  of  Gregory  IX.   relaxed  their  vow  of 
poverty.     In   1245   Innocent   lY.  cancelled   it   alto- 


44         MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY, 

gether.  Francis  had  ordered  that  even  the  churches 
of  the  Franciscans  should  be  unadorned;  but  the 
splendid  palaces  of  this  brotherhood  gave  rise  to  the 
saying  that  the  friars  "  turned  the  bread  of  the  poor 
into  stones."  Similarly  the  professed  contempt  for 
learning  and  ecclesiastical  dignity  disappears.  The 
friars  invade  the  professorial  chairs  and  the  cathe- 
dral thrones.  Dominican  learning  was  represented 
by  Thomas  Aquinas,  Franciscan  by  Bonaventura. 
Nicholas  TV.  and  the  English  primate  Peckham  were 
both  Franciscans ;  their  elevation  suggesting  the 
boast  that  the  "sun  and  moon"  had  both  put  on 
the  friar's  garb.  By  the  end  of  the  century  the 
friars  were  noted  chiefly  for  mutual  animosity, 
pedantic  disputation  (the  Dominicans  were  Nomi- 
nalists, the  Franciscans  Bealists),  greed  of  bequests, 
and  captious  antagonism  to  the  parish  priests.  It  is 
noteworthy  that  the  Popes  abetted  the  friars  against 
the  clergy,  just  as  they  sided  with  the  abbots  of  the 
older  brotherhoods  against  the  bishops. 

The  last  event  in  the  pontificate  of  Innocent  III. 
Theiateran  ^^  *^®  fourth  Lateran  Council,  a.d.  1215. 
Councu  of  1215.  ^^  ^his  large  assembly  the  four  Oriental 
patriarchates  were  represented.  Deposition  and  exile 
were  pronounced  on  the  heretical  Raymond  YI.  An 
assertion  of  the  dogma  of  transubstantiation,  penned 
by  Innocent  himself,  was  passed  without  protest. 
All  Christians  were  charged  to  confess  at  least  once 
yearly,  and  to  communicate  at  Easter. 

The  reign  of  the  mild  Honorius  III.  (1216-27)  is 
memorable  only  for  a  disastrous  Eg}^tian  Crusade, 
and  a  feeble  struggle  with   Frederic  II.   concerning 


THIRTEENTH  CENTURY.  45 

the  union  of  the  German  and  Sicilian  crowns.     His 
successor,  the   aged   Gregory  IX.,  was  a     «    ,. ,  , 

'  °    ,  o      ^  7  ^  Conflict  of 

pontiff  of   high   views    and    severe    life,  Gregory ix.  and 

r.       .  ,      1  1  XT-       Frederic  11. 

but  of  singularly  petulant  temper.  He  Gregory's 
precipitately  excommunicated  Frederic  for 
supposed  slackness  in  organising  the  fifth  Crusade 
(1227).  Throughout  the  vicissitudes  of  this  expe- 
dition, which  resulted  in  the  coronation  of  Frederic 
at  Jerusalem,  the  Emperor  was  opposed  by  the  Pope, 
the  hierarchy,  the  Templars,  and  the  Hospitallers. 
The  Papal  forces  even  invaded  Apulia,  under  the 
Templar  Grand  Master,  John  of  Brienne.  Frederic 
returned  to  rout  his  opponents,  and  Gregory  in  vain 
fulminated  against  the  successful  soldier  of  the  cross. 
A  truce  was  concluded  at  San  Germano,  ostensibly 
favourable  to  the  aged  pontiff,  and  an  interval  of 
peace  was  spent  by  both  parties  in  rival  works  of 
legislation.  Gregory,  to  reconcile  and  supplement 
the  various  compilations  of  the  Canon  Law,  published 
his  Decretals,  a  code  which  crowns  the  fictions  of 
the  pseudo -Isidore  with  the  highest  pretensions  of 
Hildebrand's  school.  The  Decretals  assume  that  all 
secular  law  is  subordinate  to  that  of  the  Church. 
The  clergy  are  therefore  exempted  from  secular 
judgment  and  taxation.  The  State  must  not  only 
respect  the  special  cognizance  of  the  Church,  it  must 
carry  out  by  temporal  means  the  Church's  decrees. 
On  the  other  hand,  Frederic  contemporaneously  issues 
a  legal  system  of  admirable  character.  Apart  from 
the  case  of  heresy,  which  both  codes  punish  with 
the  severest  capital  punishment,  the  Emperor's  view 
of    ecclesiastical    matters    strikingly   contrasts    with 


46         MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

Gregory's.  With  Frederic  the  crown  is  the  supreme 
source  of  law  and  order.  Provisions  are  accord- 
ingly made  against  clerical  evasion  of  feudal  duties. 
Appeals  to  the  Pope  in  temporal  matters  are  pro- 
hibited. The  crown  is  empowered  to  legitimatize 
the  children  of  a  clergyman. 

The  rival  legislators  join  issue  in  1235,  when 
FaUure  of  Frederic  conducted  a  successful  expedition 
Gregory  IX.  against  the  insurgent  cities  of  Lombardy. 
Gregory,  whose  offices  as  arbitrator  had  been  declined, 
chose  to  treat  this  campaign  as  an  invasion  of  Church 
property.  He  again  excommunicates  the  Emperor, 
releases  his  subjects  from  their  allegiance,  bans  all 
clergymen  who  shall  officiate  in  his  presence.  Frederic, 
not  content  with  confuting  the  various  charges  made 
by  the  Pope,  appealed  to  the  princes  of  Christendom 
against  this  odious  malignity.  Gregory's  counter- 
blast, charging  Frederic  with  heresy  and  blasphemy, 
and  demanding  the  election  of  another  Emperor,  pro- 
duced little  effect.  The  imperial  forces  marched  on 
the  Papal  territories.  Cardinal  Colonna,  the  Pope's 
best  general,  went  over  to  Frederic.  To  complete  his 
humiliation,  Gregory's  attempt  to  convene  a  General 
Council  resulted  in  Frederic's  capture  of  a  fleet  laden 
with  foreign  prelates,  1241.  Gregory  IX.  died  shortly 
afterwards,  leaving  a  name  for  great  assumption  rather 
than  for  practical  achievement. 

The  conflict   drags  on  under  Innocent  lY.     The 

Innocently     ^^^^  Pope   is   forccd  to  fly  from  Rome, 

L?oL'°Defie  1243.      France,    Aragon,   and    England 

of  the  Empire,    decline   the   costly   honour   of    a   Papal 

visit.     Lyons,   not   yet   within   the   French   domain^ 


THIRTEENTH   CENTURY.  47 

ofters  the  pontiff  protection  ;  and  here  is  held  the 
thinly  attended  General  Council  of  1245.  Innocent 
bemoaned  before  this  assembly  the  "  five  wounds  "  of 
the  Church — the  Tartar  encroachments  in  Kussia  and 
Poland,  the  schism  of  the  Greeks,  the  heresies  of 
Lombardy,  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  the 
Charismians,  the  persecutions  of  the  Emperor.  On 
his  own  authority  he  excommunicated  and  deposed 
Frederic.  The  Emperor  revenged  himself  by  keeping 
sees  and  benefices  vacant,  and  actively  persecuting 
the  mendicant  friars.  But  Frederic's  star  was  now 
waning.  The  great  prelates  of  the  Rhine  abetted 
the  Papal  cause,  and  set  up  successively  Henry  of 
Thuringia  and  William  of  Holland,  in  the  room  of 
the  excommunicate  sovereign.  A  war,  marked  by 
barbarous  cruelties,  was  carried  on  in  Italy  till 
Frederic's  death,  1250.  Innocent  continued  the 
conflict  against  Conrad,  his  successor,  and  against 
Manfred,  the  guardian  of  Conrad's  infant  heir.  Peace 
w^as  not  restored  till  the  demise  of  this  Pope  in  1254. 
Meantime,  ominous  murmurs  against  the  corrup- 
tions of  the  Papacy  were  making  them-  Papal  Extortions 
selves  heard.  England,  under  Henry  provSSn^* 
III.,  was  farmed  by  foreign  ecclesiastics,  Reservation, 
who  mostly  lived  wholly  abroad.  Gregory  IX.  had 
claimed  two  prebends  in  every  English  cathedral,  and 
the  allowance  of  two  monks  in  each  monastery.  By 
Papal  "  provision  "  a  living  not  yet  vacant  was  pro- 
vided with  its  future  incumbent.  "  Reservation  "  (a 
claim  to  reserve  to  himself  any  benefice  he  desired) 
gave  the  Pope  unbounded  facilities  for  such  provision. 
At  the  Lyons  Council  of  1245,  the  feeling  of  England 


48         3fAiyUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

was  expressed  by  Roger  Bigod  and  others,  who 
appealed  for  a  limitation  of  the  "  execrable  extortions  " 
of  the  Pope,  by  which  60,000  marks  passed  yearly 
from  England  to  Italy.  Next  year,  the  estates  con- 
vened at  Westminster  unanimously  sent  a  gravamen 
on  this  subject  to  Innocent  IV.  But  the  Pope  bade 
Henry  take  warning  from  the  fate  of  the  excommuni- 
cate Frederic  II.,  and  the  weak  English  sovereign 
succumbed.  The  resolute  policy  of  subsequent  reigns 
was,  however,  foreshadowed  by  the  individual  resist- 
ance of  Grosseteste,  Bishop  of  Lincoln,  who  success- 
fully combated  Innocent's  appointment  of  an  infant 
nephew  to  a  Lincoln  canonry.  Grosseteste,  though 
not  a  doctrinal  reformer,  is  notable  as  a  great  assailant 
of  the  worst  scandals  in  the  mediaeval  system.  He 
resented  the  abuse  of  indulgences,  the  misapplication 
of  patronage,  the  employment  of  the  clergy  in  secular 
business.  He  befriended  the  friars,  as  yet  in  untar- 
nished repute,  and  installed  them  as  teachers  at 
Oxford,  where  also  he  attempted  to  introduce  the 
study  of  the  Scriptures.  Grosseteste  excited  Innocent's 
wrath  by  preaching  a  famous  sermon  at  Lyons  against 
the  corruptions  of  the  Papacy  in  1252. 

Somewhat  later  the  increasing  jealousy  of  Papal 
pretension  finds  illustration  in  the  Court 
Legislation  of  of  France.  Even  the  saintly  Lewis  IX. 
^^^  '  is  guilty  of  anti-papal  legislation,  1269. 
His  Pragmatic  Sanction  (the  foundation  of  the  future 
Galilean  hberties)  secures  to  the  national  Church 
freedom  of  election  to  dignities,  and  protests  against 
the  "assessments  of  money  by  the  Court  of  Home, 
by  which   our  realm  has  been  most  miserably   im- 


THIRTEENTH  CENTURY.  49 

poverished."  A  similar  protest  is  latent  in  Lewis' 
"  Establishments,"  which  distinctly  enunciate  the 
position  that  the  King  of  France  ''  holdeth  of  no  one 
save  God,  and  himself." 

Lewis  had  at  heart  the  real  welfare  of  the  National 
Church.  Too  often,  however,  the  sove-  Extortions  of 
reign  who  protests  against  Roman  rapa-  the  Sovereigns, 
city,  in  his  maladministration  of  benefices  rivals  the 
representative  of  St.  Peter.  If  the  Popes  filled  English 
livings  with  Italians,  Henry  III.  was  as  liberal  to 
Bretons  and  Provencals.  Two  royal  prerogatives 
often  occasion  burning  dissension  in  this  age,  ih^jus 
regale  and  jus  exuviarum.  The  first  gave  the  sovereign 
the  emoluments  of  a  vacant  see  for  a  time  of  disputed 
duration.  We  have  noticed  the  abuse  of  this  pre- 
rogative by  our  Anglo-Norman  kings.  The  ji(,s 
exuviarum  gave  the  Crown  the  furniture  and  pecu- 
niary savings  of  the  Bishop  defunct.  These  had 
originally  lapsed  to  the  Church.  From  arbitrating 
their  distribution  the  sovereign  had  passed  to  a 
pretended  claim  to  such  personalties. 

While  the  Church  was  disgraced  by  the  avarice  of 
its  rulers,  lay  and  clerical,  its  policy  EstabUshment  of 
towards  suspected  heretics  continued  to  t^e  inquisition, 
outrage  all  natural  humanity.  Against  the  wretched 
Albigenses  of  Languedoc,  Gregory  IX.  had  armed 
orthodoxy  with  the  "  Inquisition,"  and  placed  it  in 
the  relentless  hands  of  the  friar-preachers,  cir.  1233. 
The  system  of  this  tribunal  violated  throughout  all 
ordinary  rules  of  judicial  fairness.  The  accused  were 
entrapped  by  insidious  questions,  even  impelled  by 
torture  to   self-inculpation.     They    were   refused  all 

VOL.    II.  4 


50         MANUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

professional  assistance.  Even  the  names  of  the  in- 
criminating witnesses  were  not  disclosed.  The  three 
penalties  of  the  Inquisition  were — for  those  who 
recanted,  penance  of  fearful  severity ;  for  those  not 
absokitely  convicted,  perpetual  imprisonment ;  for  the 
obstinate  or  relapsed,  death  at  the  stake.  The  Inqui- 
sition aroused  horror  by  its  atrocious  persecution  of 
the  French  heretics.  It  was  generally  detested,  but 
seldom  openly  resisted.  Its  tyranny  made  holy  wars 
of  all  kinds  unpopular,  and  partly  explains  the  decay 
of  the  crusading  spirit. 

After  a  three  years'  vacancy,  the  Papacy  was  filled 
in  A.D.   1271,  by  a  pontiff  of  large  aims 

Successful  jrvM  X,  •       . 

career  of     and     lelicitous     Career,    who    seemmgly 
regory    .    g^^^gg^j^^j  jjj^  closing  the  schism  of  East 

and  West.  Gregory  X.  had  been  a  crusader.  His 
efforts  at  reunion  were  subsidiary  to  a  great  scheme 
for  enlisting  all  Christendom  in  a  common  effort  for 
the  recovery  of  the  Holy  Land.  This  Pope  enjoyed 
exceptional  advantages  in  his  relations  to  the  two 
Emperors.  Michael  Palseologus  sought  the  assistance 
of  Borne  against  the  disaffected  Greek  clergy  and 
against  Charles  of  Sicily.  Germanus  the  ex-Patriarch 
was  accordingly  sent  to  the  great  Council  of  Lyons 
(the  fourteenth  "General  Council"  of  Roman  com- 
putation), in  1274.  The  envoy  owned  the  primacy 
of  the  Pope,  and  acknowledged  the  Latin  creed ;  he 
only  demanded  that  the  Greeks  should  be  allowed  to 
omit  the  Filioque,  and  retain  their  own  usages.  The 
Western  Emperor,  Rudolf  of  Hapsburg,  owed  his  pro- 
motion to  the  pressure  Gregory  put  upon  the  electors. 
At  the  council  the  attitude  of  Rudolf's  envoys  was 


THIRTEENTH  CENTURY.  51 

all  that  a  Pope  could  desire.  They  renounced  the 
jus  exuviarum,  promised  freedom  of  elections  and 
immunity  of  Church  property,  and  obtained  a  formal 
confirmation  from  Gregory  of  the  Emperor's  election. 
Gregory  persuaded  Rudolf's  rival,  Alfonso  of  Castile, 
to  withdraw  his  claims,  and  was  rewarded  with  larger 
favours.  Kudolf  not  only  took  the  cross,  but  pledged 
himself  to  recover  for  Rome  the  Countess  Matilda's 
bequest,  Corsica,  Sardinia,  and  other  disputed  terri- 
tories. He  also  acknowledged  as  genuine  the  privi- 
leges which  Lewis  I.  and  Otho  I.  were  supposed  to 
have  granted  the  Papacy.  Gregory  X.  thus  gained 
from  the  Empire  more  than  any  other  Pope  had  really 
done. 

The  second  Council  of  Lyons  in  point  of  attendance 
and  conduct  contrasts  strikingly  with  its  The  Council  of 
predecessor  of  1245.  Its  chief  subjects ^y°"''^"^' ^2'^*' 
of  deliberation  were  the  subsidy  for  the  Holy  War, 
the  union  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  reformation  of 
morals.  The  clergy  of  all  countries  (with  some 
demur  on  the  part  of  England),  promised  a  tithe  for 
six  years.  The  Greek  bishops  joined  in  reciting  the 
article  of  the  double  procession,  and  a  reconciliation 
of  the  two  Churches  was  formally  ratified.  The  Pope 
inveighed  against  the  vices  of  the  clergy,  urged  the 
prelates  to  reform  themselves,  and  passed  canons  to  pre- 
vent the  scandal  of  prolonged  vacations  of  the  Papacy. 

These  efforts  were  rendered  fruitless  by  the  sudden 
death    of    Gregory,    a.d.    1276.      It   was 

.,  1  .  -,.  The  Council 

found  impossible  to  resuscitate  crusading    is  without 

1        /-HI     •    ,        1  ,  •  111  practical  effect. 

zeal.     Christendom  continued  lukewarm, 

even  in  1291,  when  Acre  was  captured  by  the  infidels. 


52       MANUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

and  the  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  and  Grand-masters 
of  the  Military  Orders  perished.  Michael  vainly 
endeavoured  to  enforce  conformity  on  the  Greek 
clergy  by  persecution,  and  his  son  Andronicus  treated 
his  memory  with  contempt,  and  excluded  the  Pope's 
name  from  the  Greek  offices.  Even  the  canon 
respecting  Papal  elections  fell  into  abeyance,  and 
there  was  an  interval  of  over  two  years  between  the 
pontificates  of  Nicholas  IV.  and  Celestine  V.  The 
last-named  is  noticeable  as  elevated  from  a  hermitage, 
proving  himself  utterly  unfit  for  the  arduous  duties 
of  the  Papacy,  and  persuaded  to  retire  by  the  arrogant 
and  self-seeking  Cardinal  Gaetani  (Boniface  VIII.), 
A.D.  1294. 

This  pontiff's  career  is  memorable  as  one  of  pre- 
Boniface  "VTii.  posterous  pretension,  successful  avarice, 
Laicos°'^"its*  ^^^  profound  disgrace.  The  saying  ran 
reception,  ^jj^^  "  he  entered  like  a  fox,  reigned  like 
a  lion,  and  went  out  like  a  dog."  The  grasping 
Boniface  strained  the  instrument  which  worthier 
Popes  had  used  so  successfully,  and  Hildebrand's 
policy  never  again  recovered  its  moral  prestige.  The 
Empire  under  Adolph  and  Albert  was  unable  to  con- 
tend with  its  great  rival.  The  battles  of  the  Papacy 
were  waged  in  the  "West  against  Edward  I.  and  Philip 
the  Fair.  Both  kings  were  guilty  of  oppressive  taxa- 
tion of  the  clergy,  and  we  find  Edward  in  1295 
venturing  to  demand  from  the  English  clergy  half 
their  incomes.  Boyal  extortion  was  made  a  pretext 
in  1296,  for  the  extravagant  bull  Clericis  Laicos,  "  On 
no  title  ...  is  any  tax  to  be  levied  on  any  property 
of  the  Church  without  the  distinct  permission  of  the 


THIRTEENTH  CENTURY.  53 

Pope."  Every  layman  of  whatever  rank  who  receives 
such  money  is  at  once  excommunicated.  Every 
ecclesiastic  who  pays  it  is  at  once  deposed.  When 
Edward  demanded  a  tenth  for  the  Scotch  war  the 
clergy  cited  this  bull,  and  claimed  exemption.  The 
king  however,  by  fines  and  confiscations,  enforced  the 
submission  of  all  but  Archbishop  Winchelsea,  who 
held  his  own  till  Edward  effected  a  compromise. 
Philip  IV.  countered  the  Clericis  Laicos  by  for- 
bidding all  exportaticm  of  treasure  from  the  realm, 
thus  amercing  the  Italian  incumbents  of  French 
benefices,  and  stopping  all  tribute  to  Pome.  Boniface 
found  it  best  to  explain  away  the  obnoxious  document, 
and  conciliate  Philip  by  canonizing  his  grandfather 
the  crusader  Lewis  IX. 

If  discomforted  by  the  failure  of  this  noted  bull, 
the  Pope  secured  a   signal    triumph   in 
1297,  when  both   France   and  England   struggle  with 
accepted  Boniface  in  his  private  character       "Unam 
as    the   arbiter   of   their   dispute.      The       *^"  *™' 
success  of  the  jubilee  of   1300,  which  brought  this 
pontifi*  an  immense  treasure,  enlarged  the  bounds  of 
Papal   pretension.     Boniface  now   claimed    the   title 
Caesar,  and  affected  imperial  attire.     Scotland,  menaced 
by  the  English  sovereign,  turned  for  protection  to  the 
Holy  see.     The  Pegency  declared   Scotland  to  be  a 
fief  of  Pome,  and  Boniface  readily  incorporated  the 
admission  in   a  bull,   which   was  denounced   by  the 
Lincoln    Parliament    of    1301.      With    Philip    lY. 
Boniface  became  embroiled  in   a   dispute  about   the 
legate.     His  letters  to  this  king  were  soon  couched 
in   terms    of    intolerable     insolence.       In    the    bull, 


54        MANUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

AuscuUa  Fill,  Philip  was  reminded  that  the  Pope  has 
power  "  to  pluck  down,  destroy,  scatter,  rebuild,  and 
plant."  His  ecclesiastics  were  invited  to  a  Roman 
Council,  w^hich  was  to  discuss  the  grievances  of  the 
French  Church.  When  Philip's  hands  were  weakened 
by  the  Flemish  w^ar,  the  Archbishop  of  T)urs  and 
other  prelates  set  off  for  Rome,  in  defiance  of  a  protest 
from  the  Estates  of  the  realm.  The  Roman  con- 
sistory issued  the  celebrated  bull,  Unam  Sanctam, 
declaring  that  Peter's  successor  holds  the  "  two 
swords  "  of  spiritual  and  temporal  power,  and  "  that 
it  is  necessary  to  salvation  to  believe  that  every 
human  being  is  subject  to  the  Roman  pontiff" 
(A.D.  1302). 

Albert  at  this  time  requited  Boniface's  recognition 
Humiliation  of  ^^  ^^^  imperial  title  by  admitting  that 
Boniface  vin.  ^he  electors  derived  their  authority  from 
Rome,  and  promising  to  defend  him  against  all  injury. 
Thus  fortified,  he  excommunicated  Philip  for  hindering 
the  French  bishops  from  attending  the  Roman  Council, 
and  for  burning  the  bull,  AuscuUa  Fill.  Philip, 
however,  with  the  aid  of  Boniface's  Italian  enemies, 
induced  the  French  prelates  to  accept  a  gravamen, 
charging  the  Pope  with  usurpation,  immorality, 
simony,  murder,  sorcery,  even  with  heresy.  Even 
the  Friars  and  Military  Orders,  hitherto  the  servile 
adherents  of  the  Papacy,  joined  the  king's  side. 
Boniface  was  summoned  to  defend  himself  before  a 
General  Council ;  but  the  disgraceful  violence  of  his 
enemies  averted  this  issue.  On  the  eve  of  the  date 
fixed  by  Boniface  for  a  second  bull  of  excommunica- 
tion, his  palace  at  Anagni  was  attacked  by  troops 


THIRTEENTH  CENTURY.  55 

headed  by  Sciarra  Colonna,  and  Nogaret,  the  French 
chancellor.  Every  kind  of  indignity  was  heaped 
upon  the  captive  pontiff.  The  people  of  Anagni 
rescued  him,  and  placed  him  under  the  care  of  the 
Orsini  at  Rome.  But  Boniface,  now  in  his  eighty- 
sixth  year,  only  survived  this  disgrace  a  few  weeks. 
It  apparently  caused  an  attack  of  insanity.  He  died 
miserably,  it  was  said  by  his  own  hands,  1303. 
With  him  collapsed  the  high  pretensions  of  the 
Papacy,  which  shortly  emigrates  to  Avignon,  and 
becomes  a  mere  appanage  of  France. 

We  briefly  notice  the  spread  of  Christianity  in  this 
century.  Among  the  Tartars,  who  in-  Spread  of 
vaded  Europe  cir.  1240,  several  friars  Christianity, 
laboured  with  indifierent  success.  The  most  noted 
of  these  was  Rubruquis,  a  Franciscan,  who  gained 
access  to  the  great  Khan,  and  has  recorded  the 
Tartar  customs.  The  Mongol  system  was,  it  seems, 
a  monotheism  of  extremely  tolerant  character,  and 
on  certain  festivals  the  rites  of  Nestorianism,  Moham- 
medanism, and  Buddhism  were  publicly  performed  in 
succession.  Kublai  Khan,  who  pushed  the  Tartar 
conquests  eastward,  and  reigned  at  Pekin  1280 — 1294, 
invited  thither  a  Christian  mission,  which  included 
the  famous  Marco  Polo  ;  but  with  no  higher  purpose 
than  that  of  civilizing  his  people.  Throughout  this 
century  overtures  passed  between  the  Armenian 
Christians  and  the  Papacy,  and  in  1292  a  court 
party  secured  the  formal  reconciliation  of  the 
Armenian  Church  to  Rome.  Livonia  was  evan- 
gelized coercively  by  Albert  of  Apeldern  and  the 
"  Brethren  of    the  Sword,"  and    Riga   was  made  its 


56  MANUAL    OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

archbishopric  in  1246.  In  Prussia  the  Teutonic 
Order  had  carried  on  the  holy  war  since  1230,  but 
the  severities  of  the  knights  made  the  new  religion 
unpopular,  and  their  sovereignty  was  not  established 
till  1283.  Russia,  harassed  by  the  Tartars,  received 
from  Innocent  IV.  an  embassage  proposing  union 
with  the  Latin  Church ;  but  these  negotiations  had 
no  practical  result.  The  Mohammedans  of  Africa 
were  visited  by  the  zealot  Raymond  Lully,  a  native 
of  Majorca,  who  in  old  age  sought  and  obtained  the 
crown  of  martyrdom,  1314.  Lully 's  name  is  also 
honourably  connected  with  the  missionary  training 
schools,  which  King  James  of  Aragon  founded  at 
his  instance  in  Majorca  (cir.  1287.)  The  policy  of 
meeting  the  rival  religion  on  some  common  ground 
for  awhile  displaced  the  senseless  fashion  of  banning 
and  persecuting;  and  controversial  treatises  were 
now  written  to  win  converts  from  Judaism  and 
Mohammedanism.  In  learned  literature  of  this  kind 
Raymond  Martini's  Pugio  Fidel  is  prominent,  as 
exhibiting  a  knowledge  of  Rabbinic  learning  remark- 
able for  the  age. 

Heresy  continued  to  spread  throughout  the  century 
despite    the    atrocious    cruelties    of    the 

Heresies— The  ... 

stedingers,  Inquisition.  As  most  of  the  sectaries 
Free  Spirit,  bascd  their  systems  on  isolated  texts  of 
pos  0  a.  g(,j^.ip{^^^pe^  w^Q  reading  of  both  Old  and 
New  Testament  was  restricted  by  various  Councils. 
The  Council  at  Beziers,  in  1246,  went  so  far  as  to 
forbid  laymen  to  have  any  theological  books,  and 
clergy  to  have  any  in  the  vernacular.  How  readily 
unorthodox   belief   provoked   the   most    preposterous 


TUIHTEENTH  CENTURY.  57 

charges  is  shown  in  the  case  of  the  wretched  ''  Ste- 
dingers,"  a  Frisian  tribe,  six  thousand  of  whom  were 
butchered  in  1232  for  practising  magic,  worshipping 
toads,  black  cats,  etc.     The  associations  of  beghards 
and    beguines   offered   to   the    persecuted    means   of 
retreat.     Their  members,  therefore,  were  often  indis- 
criminately assailed  as  heretics.    A  sect  on  the  Rhine, 
styled    "  Brethren   of   the   Free    Spirit,"   who   lived 
by  mendicancy,  and  in   their  pursuit   of   perfection 
incurred  charges  of  immorality,  were  much  persecuted 
about   the   middle   of   the   century.     A  similar   sect 
were   the   Apostolici,   headed   by    Segarello,    a   crazy 
native  of  Parma,   who  was  executed  in  1300.     His 
successor,  Dolcino,  waged  open  war  against  the  clergy. 
His  adherents  took  refuge  in  the  Alps,  where  they 
were  exterminated  with  fearful  cruelties  in  1307,  at 
the  instigation  of  Clement  Y. 

The  greater  mendicant  Orders  have  been  noticed. 
Their  success  excited  many  imitators,  and 

^  ,  Mendicancy 

Gregory   X.,    at   the    second   Council    of     restricted, 
Lyons,  confined  the  privilege  of  licensed  joachim,  and 
mendicancy  to  four  Orders — the  two  great  ° 
brotherhoods,  the  Carmelites,  and  the  Austin  Friars. 
The  last  Order  was  a  union  of  the  communities  who 
professed   the   rule   of    St.  Augustine,  instituted   by 
Alexander  IV.  in  1256.     But  by  this  time  the  rule 
of    poverty  was  observed    by   none    except  the    con- 
scientious Franciscans    termed   fratricelli.     This   age 
was   fond   of   prophecy,    and   two   noted   enthusiasts 
received  countenance  from  the  Franciscans.    Joachim's 
"Everlasting  Gospel"  (1250)  announced  the  advent 
of  the  Last  Age,   that  of   the  Holy  Spirit  w^orking 


58  MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

through  St.  Francis.  Peter  John  Oliva  (cir.  1297) 
represented  the  saint  as  heralding  the  sixth  of  seven 
ecclesiastical  ages,  and  foretold  that  the  seventh  would 
include  the  destruction  of  the  Papacy  by  Frederic  of 
Sicily. 

The  tendency  of  ecclesiastical  doctrine  and  ritual 
may  be  i^athered  from  our   summary  of 

Doctrine  and  *^  ^  *'    . 

Ritual  in  the  events.  The  Church  was  fast  losing  its 
^^*  moral  influence.  Personally  in  disesteem, 
the  clergy  professionally  claimed  and  obtained  a 
superstitious  reverence,  based  on  their  functions  at 
the  Holy  Communion.  Transubstantiation  in  its 
grossest  form  was  credited,  and  confirmed  by  legends 
of  bleeding  wafers.  Thomas  Aquinas  gave  an  affirma- 
tive answer  to  the  doubtful  question  whether  an 
animal  that  should  eat  the  consecrated  host  received 
the  Lord's  body.  The  doctrine  of  "  concomitancy," 
broached  by  Anselm,  had  led  to  a  restriction  of  the 
cup  to  the  celebrating  priest,  and  the  tendency  was  to 
make  the  laity  altogether  spectators  instead  of  com- 
municants. The  Lateran  Council  of  1215  had  made 
one  yearly  reception  sufficient.  Alexander  Hales 
argues  that  it  is  not  right  to  eat  bread  which  miracles 
prove  to  be  the  very  flesh  of  Christ.  The  popular 
doctrine  was  stereotyped  in  the  festival  of  Corpus 
Christi,  decreed  in  honour  of  the  eucharistic  body 
in  1264,  and  universally  established  by  Clement  Y.'s 
bull  of  1311.  Besides  developing  the  system  of 
composition  by  purchase  of  masses,  the  twelfth  century 
extended  the  system  of  indulgences.  Some  hundred 
thousand  people  yearly  obtained  plenary  absolution 
by  visiting  the  Franciscan  Church  at  Assisi  on  the 


THIRTEENTH  CENTURY.  59 

festival  of  St.  Peter  ad  Vincula.  Countless  numbers 
availed  themselves  of  the  indulgence  offered  at  Boni- 
face's jubilee.  As  usual,  a  plausible  logical  system  was 
devised  to  commend  the  innovation.  The  self-denial 
and  unmerited  suffering  of  saints  gave  them,  it  was 
argued,  an  excess  of  merit.  From  this  superfluity 
the  Church  was  authorised  to  draw  for  the  relief  of 
members  less  richly  endowed.  The  precatory  abso- 
lution now  took  a  declaratory  form  at  the  instance 
of  Thomas  Aquinas.  Itinerant  "  qusestuaries "  or 
"  pardoners "  began  to  hawk  indulgences  promis- 
cuously. More  practical,  if  equally  superstitious,  was 
the  strange  "flagellant"  movement  of  1260,  which 
spread  like  an  epidemic  through  Hungary,  Poland, 
France,  and  Germany,  and  had  to  be  suppressed  by 
severe  penalties.  The  reverence  due  to  the  Virgin 
Mary  was  by  Thomas  Aquinas  defined  to  be  hyjyer- 
dulia,  a  mean  between  the  dulia  paid  to  saints  and 
the  latria  due  to  the  Father  and  to  both  natures 
of  the  Saviour.  The  house  of  the  holy  family  at 
Nazareth,  which  about  a.d.  1294  was  carried  by 
angels  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Loreto,  attracted 
henceforward  the  devotion  and  oflerings  of  pilgrims. 
The  doctrine  of  St.  Mary's  Immaculate  Conception, 
which  had  been  discredited  by  Bernard,  was  accepted 
by  Duns  Scotus,  and  therefore  by  all  future  Fran- 
ciscans. The  Brotherhood  won  for  it  a  general 
approval.  It  was  firmly  established  in  England  by 
Archbishop  Mepham  in  1328. 

The  thirteenth  century  introduces  a  glorious  period 
in  Church  architecture,  and  the  skill  of  illuminators, 
glass   stainers,    workers  in    metal,  and  other  decora- 


60       MA^VUAL   OF  CHURCn  HISTORY. 

tive  artists,  now  approached   perfection.     Literature 
was    much    encourao^ed,    and    amonsr    its 

Art.  Literature-  °  ° 

The  leading    patrons  were  Alfonso  X.  of  Castile,  and 

Schoolmen.  _,       .      .       _^        _, 

the  JLmperor  Frederic  II.  The  latter 
established  the  Universities  of  Naples,  Padua,  and 
Vienne.  The  famous  theological  school  at  Paris  was 
founded  by  Robert  of  Sorbonne,  chaplain  to  Lewis  TX. 
(cir.  1250).  To  describe  minutely  the  labours  of  the 
leading  theologians  would  be  wearisome  and  unprofit- 
able. Theological  study  was  now  little  else  than  a 
barren  system  of  hair-splitting  dialectics,  on  premises 
which  few  would  now  accept  as  unassailable.  When 
the  tyranny  of  logic  necessitated  impious  or  absurd 
conclusions  the  scholastic  divine  escaped  by  differentiat- 
ing things  ^'  philosophically  true  "  and  "  theologically 
true."  Much  of  this  casuistry  was  due  to  the  reverence 
paid  to  Aristotle,  who,  notwithstanding  considerable 
opposition,  remained  the  dictator  in  philosophy.  With 
the  "  Irrefragable  Doctor,"  the  English  Franciscan, 
Alexander  Hales  (d.  1245),  began  the  system  of 
conducting  disputes  in  syllogistic  form,  afterwards 
accepted  by  all  the  schoolmen.  Albert,  the  "  Universal 
Doctor,"  a  Dominican,  held  for  a  time  the  Bishopric  of 
Eatisbon,  1260-63.  He  is  credited  with  vast  learn- 
ing, great  acuteness  in  argument,  "a  courage  which 
sometimes  ventures  even  to  contradict  the  authority 
of  Aristotle,  and  an  originality  which  entitles  him  to 
be  regarded  as  the  real  founder  of  the  Dominican 
system  of  doctrine."  But  his  pupil,  Thomas  of 
Aquino,  the  ''Angelical  Doctor"  (d.  1274),  became 
the  standard  authority  not  only  of  the  Dominicans 
but  of   the  Church.     At   the    Council  of  Trent,  his 


THIRTEENTH  CENTURY.  61 

"  Summa  Theologica  "  was  placed  on  the  secretary's 
desk  beside  the  Scriptures,  as  the  orthodox  key  to 
all  controversial  problems.  The  great  Franciscan 
schoolman  of  this  century  was  John  of  Fidanza,  called 
Bonaventura,  General  of  the  Order  (d.  1274).  He 
advanced  the  cult  of  the  Virgin,  and  was  known  as 
the  '^  Seraphic  Doctor."  But  the  Aquinas  of  the 
Franciscans  was  John  Duns  Scotus,  a  North  Briton, 
of  Oxford  training,  who  taught  at  Paris  in  1308. 
The  differences  between  the  Dominican  and  Franciscan 
schools  were  emphasized  by  this  "  Subtle  Doctor,"  and 
much  discord  was  caused  when  the  general  assemblies 
of  his  Order  gave  a  binding  authority  to  his  opinions. 
To  posterity,  the  most  interesting  of  the  school- 
men is  Roger  Bacon,  esteemed  in  his  own  day  a 
sorcerer,  though  honoured  with  the  title  ''  Wonderful 
Doctor."  His  researches  in  physical  science  pro- 
voked the  persecution  of  his  Franciscan  superiors, 
and  to  satisfy  Clement  TV.  Bacon  wrote  under 
great  difficulties  his  Ojms  Majus,  Opus  Mimes,  and 
Opus  Tertium. 

Of  the  political  changes  of  this  century  we  have 
said   little.     The    student   will,   however, 
remember  the  importance  of   this  period  Constitutional 
in  the  history  of   constitutional   govern-    The  English' 
ment.     The  statesmen    who   in    England     °'^'°*'* ""' 
headed  the  demand  for  liberty  were  mostly  in  clerical 
orders ;  and  side  by  side  with  Parliament,  the  "  Con- 
vocation "  of  the  clergy  worked  out  its  organisation 
as  an  estate  of  the  realm  possessing  deliberative,  legis- 
lative, and  taxing  powers.     The  basis  of  Convocation 
was  finally  determined  before  the  end  of  this  century. 


62       MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

This  venerable  institution,  which  now  survives  as  a 
deliberative  assembly,  was  the  tax-paying  agency  of 
the  English  Church  till  1664,  and  its  administrative 
body  till  1717. 


CHAPTER  XIY. 

FOURTEENTH    CENTURY. 

BONIFACE'S  career  had  seriously  impaired  the 
prestige  of  the  Papacy.  Benedict  XI.  found 
himself  forced  to  conciliate  Philip  IV.  He  reversed 
the    bulls    of     excommunication,     toned 

,  1        j^i      '    '       r     •  T    -I-.       .     The  "Seventy 

down  the  Clericis  Laicos,  restored  Bom-  Years'  Cap- 
face's  enemies,  the  Colonnas,  and  allowed 
Philip  to  circulate  a  libellous  life  of  the  late  Pope 
under  the  name  of  Maleface.  The  next  Pope,  Cle- 
ment V.  (1305),  was  a  Gascon,  had  been  Archbishop 
of  Bordeaux,  and  was  elevated  as  the  puppet  of  the 
French  king,  in  defiance  of  the  Italian  cardinals. 
Clement  dared  not  enter  Italy,  and  eventually  settled 
at  Avignon,  now  part  of  the  realm  of  Naples.  Thus 
begins  the  prolonged  severance  of  the  Popes  from 
Ptome,  called  by  the  Italians  "the  Seventy  Years' 
Captivity"  (1305—1376).  This  period  of  exile  was 
very  damaging  to  the  assumptions  of  the  Papal  court. 
Its  corruptions  meanwhile  increased,  and  its  moral 
tone  was  often  grossly'  scandalous. 

Clement's   impotence   was   shown  by  his   attitude 
when  Philip   swept  away  the   Templars    suppression  of 
with  fearful  cruelties  in   1308-10.     This      coZu'of 
Order    had    been    made    independent   of '^^J^^p'^^,^^^^"- 
all  but   the    Papal  authority  by  a   bull       Reforms. 
of  Alexander  III.  a.d.  1173.     Clement  V.,  however 


64       MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

was  obliged  to  profess  conviction  on  the  subject 
of  the  profanities  and  unnatural  vices  of  the 
knights,  and  sanction  Philip's  confiscation  of  their 
property.  In  every  country  the  horrors  usual  in  the 
case  of  suspected  heretics  marked  the  abolition  of 
this  unpopular  Order,  after  the  Pope  had  withdrawn 
his  protection.  Clement  was  also  forced  to  connive  at 
Philip's  curious  suit  against  the  memory  of  Boni- 
face VIII.  All  Boniface's  procedure  against  France 
was  erased  from  the  Papal  registers,  and  Philip  and 
his  other  enemies  were  declared  to  be  free  from  guilt. 
The  General  Council  of  Vienne  (a.d.  1311),  which 
formally  dissolved  the  Templars,  also  discussed  the 
subject  of  Church  reform.  Though  nothing  was 
effected,  the  proposals  of  Durandus,  Bishop  of  Mende, 
illustrate  the  state  of  the  Church,  and  the  aims  of 
conscientious  reformers.  Durandus  desired  to  deprive 
the  cardinals  of  the  franchise  after  any  three  months 
vacation  of  the  Papal  see ;  to  assemble  General  Coun- 
cils every  ten  years ;  and  to  abolish  those  dispensations 
and  exemptions  in  behalf  of  monasteries  and  brother- 
hoods, which  the  Popes  had  used  to  disparage  the 
episcopate.  He  denounced  simony,  appointments  in 
commeyidam,  and  the  pride,  ignorance,  and  luxury 
apparent  in  the  priesthood.  In  regard  to  marriage 
he  claimed  for  all  clergy  the  same  fi-eedom  that  was 
sanctioned  in  the  East,  but  desired  severe  penalties 
for  those  who  really  lived  immoral  lives. 

Philip  and  Clement  both  died  in  1314.     The  car- 
dinals were  inveigled  to  Lyons,  and  there 

Pope  John  XXII.  ,     ,       ,  ,  . 

elected  the  learned  canonist  John  XXII., 
who,  despite  promises  to  the  contrary,  continued  the 


FOURTEENTH  CENTURY.  65 

settlement  at  Avignon.  The  power  of  the  French 
crown  now  collapses;  and  the  exiled  Papacy  for 
awhile  renews  the  pretensions  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. John  invaded  the  liberties  of  the  French 
Church  by  redistributing  its  dioceses,  and  reforming 
the  Universities  of  Paris,  Toulouse,  and  Orleans.  He 
persecuted  sorcerers  and  Jews  with  remorseless  cruelty. 
It  was  an  age  of  "  spiritual  "  enthusiasm.  The  Fra- 
tricelli  took  up  the  prophecies  of  Joachim  and  Oliva, 
and  predicted  the  end  of  the  visible  Church  and  the 
advent  of  the  millennium.  By  the  Dominican  inqui- 
sitors these  crazed  Franciscans  were  readily  confounded 
with  Albigensian  heretics,  and  burnt.  John  was  also 
impolitic  enough  to  affront  the  whole  Franciscan 
Order  by  denunciation  of  the  doctrine  of  "  evangelical 
poverty."  He  even  rescinded  the  ancient  charters  of 
Franciscanism,  and  forbade  the  Order  to  quote  the 
name  of  the  Apostolic  see  in  its  conduct  of  affairs. 
Henceforward  the  Franciscan  friars,  hitherto  the 
staunch  servants  of  the  Papacy,  familiarised  the 
lower  orders  with  arguments  to  its  disparagement. 
The  appearance  of  rival  candidates  for  the  imperial 
throne  in  the  year  of  his  accession  gave  opposes 
John  opportunity  for  a  pushing  policy  in  ^^^^  ^' 
Germany  and  in  Italy.  His  maxim  w^as :  "  When  kings 
and  princes  quarrel,  then  the  Pope  is  truly  Pope." 
He  waited  for  the  issue  of  the  conflict  to  hurl  himself 
against  the  winner.  When  Lewis  of  Bavaria,  at  the 
decisive  battle  of  Muhldorf,  defeated  the  Austrian 
princes,  1323,  John  declared  the  matter  should  have 
been  referred  to  him  for  settlement,  and  forbade 
Lewis  to  use  the  imperial  authority.     Lewis  appealed 

5 


66       MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY, 

to  a  general  council,  and  the  Pope  excommunicated 
him. 

But  John,  like  Boniface,  over-estimated  his  powers. 

The  Electors  sided  with  Lewis,  and  few 

logue "  and     prelates  in    Germany   issued   the   Papal 

ThT'^Defensor  sentences.      The    great    Franciscan,   the 

Pacis."  ,,  Singular  and  Invincible  Doctor," 
William  of  Ockham,  published  his  "  Dialogue,"  and 
his  ''  Compendium  Errorum  Papae,"  declaring  the  falli- 
bility of  Popes  and  Councils,  and  denouncing  the 
temporal  pretensions  of  the  Papacy.  At  the  same 
time  appeared  the  satirical  "  Defensor  Pacis,"  the 
composition  of  John  of  Jandun  and  Marsilius  of 
Padua.  The  whole  Papal  system  was  here  impugned 
with  much  skill.  The  equality  of  all  the  apostles, 
and  the  identity  of  the  orders  of  bishop  and  presbyter 
are  maintained.  General  councils  are  the  final  courts 
of  appeal  in  ecclesiastical  questions;  and  they  must 
be  summoned  by  the  emperor.  It  is  uncertain  that 
Peter  was  ever  at  Rome.  The  Church  need  not  have 
an  earthly  head.  Such  tenets  were  startling  in  the 
fourteenth  century.  The  freedom  of  the  antipapal 
writers  drove  the  champions  of  Pome  to  exaggerate 
the  old  fabrications.  All  powers,  spiritual  and  secular, 
are  now  said  to  belong  to  the  Pope,  and  Constantine's 
donation  becomes  a  mere  act  of  restitution. 

Lewis,    however,    made    his    way    to    Milan   and 

Lewis  IV.  Pome,  and  in  both  cities  was  crowned  by 
To$^^^^^^^^^  bishops  of  the  Ghibelline  faction,  1327. 
°  aSu^ed^f'"  ^t  a  vast   assembly  outside  St.  Peter's, 

Heresy.  ^^Q  exposed  John's  procedure,  and 
pronounced  him  to  be  deprived  of  the  Papacy.     A 


FOURTEENTH  CENTURY.  67 

Franciscan,  who  had  held  the  office  of  Papal  Peniten- 
tiary, was  elevated  as  Nicholas  V.,  1328.  But 
political  complications  shortly  drew  the  allegiance  of 
the  Italians  from  the  emperor  and  his  anti-pope. 
Nicholas  abjured  his  apostasy,  and  tendered  a  dis- 
graceful submission  to  John  at  Avignon,  1329.  The 
latter  strained  every  nerve  to  effect  the  ruin  of  Lewis 
by  anathemas  and  conspiracies.  But  this  persecuting 
pontiff  himself  now  fell  under  a  charge  of  heresy. 
He  had  asserted  in  a  sermon  that  the  saints,  (even  the 
Virgin  not  excepted),  did  not  enjoy  the  beatific  vision 
until  the  end  of  the  w^orld.  This  view  shocked  certain 
Dominicans,  and  its  condemnation  by  the  Sorbonne 
alienated  from  John  his  self-seeking  ally  Philip  VI. 
The  excitement  on  the  subject  induced  the  Pope  to 
make  some  kind  of  recantation,  Shortly  after  this  hu- 
miliation he  died,  leaving  an  immense  treasure  swelled 
by  recent  exactions  for  a  proposed  crusade. 

John's  persecution  of  Lewis  IV.  was  continued  by 
the  next  Popes,  the  reforming  Benedict  chariesrv. 
XII.,  1334,  and  the  dissolute  Clement  VI., j-^^JJj^^^^t^ 
1342.  The  weak  sovereign  exhausted  every  Golden  BuU. 
expedient  for  securing  pardon,  and  at  last  decided  to 
resign,  1346.  Charles  of  Luxemburg  was  his  successor. 
Clement  had  the  management  of  the  election  in 
his  hands,  and  extorted  from  the  new  emperor  de- 
grading pledges  of  submission.  This  roused  much 
indignation  in  Germany,  and  the  '^  Priests'  Emperor  " 
was  for  some  years  recognised  by  few.  Charles  IV., 
however,  came  to  terms  with  the  opponent  Bavarian 
faction  in  1350,  and  justified  Clement's  choice  by  a 
wise  and  peaceful  rule,  and  by  his  encouragement  of 


68       MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY, 

literature  and  art.  By  a  singular  fatality,  the 
"  Golden  Bull,"  which  finally  determined  the  system 
of  imperial  election,  and  which  absolutely  ignored  the 
papal  claim  to  interference  therein,  was  issued  by  the 
"  Priests'  Emperor,"  a.d.  1356. 

In  1347-48,  the  whole  social  system  of  Europe  was 
The  Black  shaken  by  the  visitation  of  the  "  Black 
?f'c5em/n?VL  Death,"  which  carried  off  a  fourth  of  the 
Rienzi.  population.  Its  ravages  were  particularly 
fatal  to  the  parochial  clergy  and  the  itinerant  friars. 
It  was  followed  by  a  renewal  of  the  flagellant  move- 
ment of  1260.  Another  Jubilee  was  celebrated  in  the 
year  1350,  and  countless  pilgrims  earned  dispensations 
by  attendance  at  the  Roman  Churches  of  St.  Peter, 
St.  Paul,  and  St.  John  Lateran.  But  still  the  Papal 
court  remained  at  Avignon.  Among  the  Roman 
delegates  who,  in  1343,  petitioned  Clement  VI.  to 
appoint  the  Jubilee,  was  the  patriot  Rienzi,  who  also 
wrung  from  the  pontiff  a  promise  to  revisit  Rome. 
The  attempts  of  Rienzi  to  raise  Rome  to  her  former 
grandeur,  and  free  her  from  the  tyranny  of  the 
Colonnas,  the  Orsini,  and  the  Savelli,  resulted  in  his 
coronation  as  Tribune,  in  1347.  But  his  short  reign 
was  regarded  with  jealousy  by  Clement  VI.  He  fell 
to  the  sound  of  Papal  anathemas,  and  was,  in  1352, 
a  prisoner  of  the  Pope  at  Avignon. 

Again  a  reforming  Pope  appears  in  the  person  of 

Innocent  VI.     Innocent  VI.,  who  for  ten  years,  1 352-62, 

^'^TiJp^'pYcy^^*  laboured  to  restrain  clerical  corruption, 

again  at  Rome.  ^-^^^  whose   legate,  Albornoz,  compassed 

the    second  and   disastrous    reign   of    Rienzi,    1354. 

Urban  V.,  1362,  was  a  ruler  of  the  same  type.     He 


FOURTEENTH  CENTURY.  69 

interrupted  the  course  of  the  Seventy  Years'  Captivity 
by  a  return  to  Rome  in  1368,  and  for  the  first  time 
since  Boniface's  death  a  Pope  celebrated  mass  at 
St.  Peter's.  But  a  vain  struggle  with  the  insub- 
ordination consequent  on  his  predecessor's  neglect 
sickened  Urban  of  Rome.  He  returned  to  die  at 
Avignon,  1370.  His  successor,  Gregory  XI.  had 
only  the  vice  of  nepotism.  In  1376  he  determined 
to  regard  the  inspired  voices  of  Catherine  of  Sienna 
and  Bridget  of  Sweden,  rather  than  the  remonstrances 
of  the  French  king  and  the  kixurious  Avignon  cardinals. 
He  returned  to  Home.  The  "  Captivity  "  was  ended. 
Abroad  Gregory  XI.  had  the  triumph  of  confirming 
the  Emperor's  appointment  of  his  son  Wenzel  as  his 
successor.  But  he  strove  vainly  against  disorder 
and  usurpation  in  the  Papal  dominions,  and  died 
broken-hearted  and  meditating  a  return  to  Avignon, 
1378. 

Gregory's  death  was  succeeded  by  a  great  tumult 
in    Home,    the  people  insisting  that   the   The  "Great 

'      .  .  ,  ,  Schism," 

French  majority  should  no  longer  sway  1378— 1417. 
the  cardinalate.  The  cry,  "  We  will  have  an  Italian," 
was  so  far  acceded  to,  that  a  Neapolitan  archbishop 
(Urban  YI.)  was  chosen.  But  the  new  pontifi* 
speedily  embroiled  himself  with  the  cardinals  by  hasty 
reforms,  and  an  arrogant  demeanour.  The  majority 
of  the  college  retired  to  Anagni,  professed  to  have 
voted  for  Urban  under  intimidation,  and  elevated 
the  warrior  Bishop  of  Cambray.  This  prelate,  as  the 
anti-pope,  Clement  YIL,  begins,  at  Avignon,  the  great 
"  schism,"  which  divided  Western  Christendom  for 
nearly  forty  years,  1378 — 1417.     France,  of  course, 


70       MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

sided  with  Clement ;  Scotland  accepted  him  because 
England  acknowledged  Urban  ;  Spain  was  detached 
from  the  Roman  line  by  the  Spanish  cardinal,  di 
Luna,  afterwards  Benedict  XIII.;  but  Germany, 
Bohemia,  Poland,  and  almost  all  Italy  expressed  their 
weariness  of  the  prolonged  French  dominion  by  main- 
taining the  legitimacy  of  Urban.  The  great  thrones 
passed  about  this  time  into  the  hands  of  such  weak 
or  debauched  sovereigns  as  Bichard  II.  of  England, 
Charles  VI.  of  France,  and  Wenzel  of  Germany.  These 
could  not  attempt  to  arbitrate  in  such  an  important 
contest.  The  spiritual  influences — the  prophets  and 
prophetesses — were  divided  between  the  rival  Popes  ; 
the  Avignon  line  being,  however,  specially  favout-ed 
by  the  miracles  of  Peter  of  Metz.  The  Councils  of 
Pisa  and  Constance,  which  ended  the  schism,  evaded 
the  burning  question  of  legitimacy.  No  conciliar 
verdict  has  since  decided  it,  and  some  Gallican  divines 
still  maintain  the  apostolical  succession  of  the  line  of 
Avignon. 

It  will  be  needless  to  narrate  the  details  of   this 

The  Schism    degrading   contest.      Clement   YII.    un- 

^'°Pap!i^^   scrupulously  fleeced   the   French  Church 

insincerity.    ^^^  people,    and  by   a   large   demand  of 

'' expectatives"  in  respect  to   reversion  of   benefices 

overrode  the  rights  of  private  patrons. ,   But  Urban's 

successor,  Boniface  IX.,  outdid  the  Avignon  Pope  in 

rapacity.     He  sold  the  same  reversions  twice  or  thrice 

over,  and  revoked  indulgences  and  privileges  in  order 

to  sell  fresh  ones.     A  jubilee  was  ordered  for  the  year 

1390,  as  well  as  for  the  centenary,  and  despite  the 

absence   of   French   pilgrims   both   occasions   largely 


FOURTEENTH  CENTURY.  71 

enriched  the  coffers  of  the  Italian  Pope.  About  the 
time  of  Clement's  death  an  earnest  desire  to  end  the 
schism  animated  the  French  Church,  and  even  the 
cardinals  of  Avignon.  Each  cardinal  promised  in 
case  of  his  elevation  to  sacrifice  his  own  title,  if 
required,  provided  Boniface  also  resigned.  But  the 
Spaniard  who  succeeded  Clement,  with  the  title 
Benedict  XIII.,  a.d.  1394,  gave  the  lie  to  his  profuse 
professions  by  discountenancing  all  pacific  efforts. 
The  University  of  Paris  suggested  that  both  Popes 
should  abdicate,  and  a  fresh  election  be  made,  and 
this  course  was  recommended  by  the  French  King 
and  Church,  and  by  the  Emperor  Wenzel.  Spain, 
England,  Hungary,  Bohemia,  and  Sicily  were  prepared 
to  accept  it.  But  both  Popes  refused  to  resign. 
Benedict's  obstinacy  in  this  matter  at  last  provoked 
the  meeting  of  the  French  Estates  at  Paris  (a.d.  1398), 
which  decided  to  withdraw  allegiance  from  the 
Avignon  Pope.  Political  complications,  however, 
favoured  Benedict,  and  in  1403  he  was  still  the  Pope 
of  France  and  Spain.  Boniface's  death,  1404,  was 
followed  by  the  short  and  troubled  reign  of  Innocent 
VII.,  to  whom  succeeded  Gregory  XII.,  pledged  like 
Benedict  to  resign  if  required. 

We  now  review  the  general  history  of  the  Church. 
It  was  the  century  of  Crecy  and  Poitiers,  papai  Authority 
The  subservience  of  the  Popes  to  France   Tijiand.''' 
had  necessarily  shattered  the  prestige  of  ProvSSj^d 
the  Papacy  in    England.       Our   country    ^'^^^^^i^e- 
protested  loudly  against  the  levy  of  annates  and  other 
Papal  dues,  as  well  as  against  the  tenure  of  benefices 
by   foreigners.     Two  noted  anti-papal    statutes  were 


72       MANUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

passed  under  Edward  III.  The  Statute  of  Provisors, 
1351,  demanded  that  the  Pope  should  not  interfere 
by  "  provision  "  with  the  freedom  of  episcopal  elections. 
The  Praemunire  statute  of  1353  forbade  the  transfer 
to  a  foreign  tribunal  of  matters  cognisable  in  the 
King's  courts.  More  legislation  of  similar  tendency 
followed.  The  great  Praemunire  statute  of  1393 
outlawed  all  subjects  who  should  procure  from  the 
Pope  bulls,  instruments,  etc.,  affecting  the  crown  or 
the  realm.  These  were  strong  assertions  of  national 
independence.  But  collusion  between  the  sovereign 
and  the  pontiff  frequently  deprived  such  Acts  of  all 
practical  force. 

From  England,  too,  comes  the  first  gi^eat  exponent 
of  doctrinal  reform.      Wyclif,  a   learned 

The  English  .  "^         ' 

reformer,  Wy-  Oxonian,  who  in  1366  urged  the  refusal 
of  the  tribute  to  which  King  John  had 
pledged  England,  had  arrived  at  conclusions  very 
similar  to  those  maintained  by  our  sixteenth-century 
reformers.  The  Pope  was  to  Wyclif  no  more  Christ's 
vicar  than  the  emperor  was.  Priestly  absolution  was 
the  declaration  of  pardon  to  the  truly  contrite.  The 
two  sacraments  of  Christ's  own  institution  he  put  on 
a  higher  level  than  the  other  five.  The  whole  system 
of  objective  worship  was  lifeless  in  Wyclif 's  estima- 
tion, without  the  sacrifice  of  the  heart  and  the 
regulation  of  the  conscience.  But  the  chief  curse  of 
Christendom,  this  fourteenth-century  reformer  de- 
clared to  be  the  friars,  who  intercepted  the  alms  due 
to  the  poor,  flattered  the  vices  of  the  rich,  invaded 
parochial  rights,  and  overrode  all  principle  in  their 
quest  of  proselytes.     Wyclif  was  doubtless  stirred  by 


FOURTEENTH  CENTURY.  73 

the  insidious  practices  of  the  friars  at  Oxford,  where 
boys  of  promise  were  induced  to  join  the  brotherhoods 
in  defiance  of  their  parents,  and  where  the  number 
of  students  had  consequently  much  declined.  To 
counteract  the  friars,  Wyclif  instituted  his  own 
preaching  brotherhood  of  "poor  priests."  The  social 
system  of  Wyclif  was  one  which  disparaged  rights  of 
property,  and  the  high-principled  reformer  was  un- 
fortunately befriended  by  the  grasping  anti-Church 
faction  of  John  of  Gaunt.  This  alliance  and  the 
extravagant  language  in  which  his  social  theories 
were  expressed,  marred  his  efforts  to  effect  practical 
changes  in  the  Church.  Yet  both  in  England  and 
abroad  Wyclif  exercised  a  permanent  influence.  One 
of  his  greatest  achievements  was  the  circulation  of  an 
English  translation  of  the  Scriptures,  cir.  1380-3. 
Shortly  afterwards  Wychf  boldly  attacked  the  central 
point  of  the  objective  system  of  religion.  He  declared 
that  the  theologians  of  four  hundred  years  had  erred 
in  respect  to  the  doctrine  and  use  of  the  Eucharist. 
Sweeping  aside  the  dogma  of  transubstantiation  and 
the  pretentious  edifice  erected  thereon,  he  insisted 
that  the  real  Presence  of  Christ  was  conveyed  "  vir- 
tually, spiritually,  and  sacramentally,"  but  not  "  sub- 
stantially." It  is  easy  to  trace  from  this  distinction 
that  reshaping  of  ideas  which  at  length  found  ex- 
pression in  our  Liturgy,  Articles,  and  Catechism.  But 
the  sacramental  teaching  of  Wyclif  was  in  his  lifetime 
most  ungrateful  to  the  educated  classes,  already  per- 
haps alienated  by  the  peasants'  insurrection,  and  the 
violent  diatribes  of  John  Ball.  Oxford  expelled  him ; 
Archbishop  Courtenay  condemned  him  as  a  heretic ; 


74       MAA'-UAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

even  Lancaster  urged  him  to  recant.  But  Wyclif 
maintained  his  position — "  On  this  point  all  have 
erred  but  Berengarius  " — and  strangely  enough  main- 
tained it  with  impunity.  He  appears  to  have  been 
cited  by  Urban  VI.  to  answer  for  his  opinions  at 
Kome.  He  died,  however,  unmolested  in  his  enjoy- 
ment of  Lutterworth  rectory.  It  is  difficult  to  assign 
to  this  reformer's  writings  their  respective  dates. 
But  to  his  Lutterworth  days,  1382-4,  probably 
belong  the  pamphlets,  "  On  the  Schism,"  "  Against 
the  Pope's  Crusade,"  and  the  most  pronounced  of  his 
doctrinal  treatises,  "  The  Trialogue." 

As  in  the  sixteenth,  so  in  the  fourteenth  century. 
The  Anarchical  ^^^  causc  of  reformation  was  impeded  by 
WycS^Bibie  ^^®  extravagance  of  its  pretended  fautors. 

prohibited.  The  "  Lollards,"  who  professed  to  follow 
Wyclif,  for  the  most  part  emphasised  the  destructive 
elements  in  their  master's  system,  and  England 
shortly  found  itself  aflame  with  socialist  frenzy.  It 
was  easy  to  extend  Wyclif's  dislike  of  ecclesiastical 
endowments  to  other  tenures  of  property.  The  barons 
and  knights  began  to  fear  lest  they  should  be  reformed 
along  with  the  clergy.  A  strong  class  feeling  rose 
against  Wyclif's  innovations,  and  against  the  circulation 
of  vernacular  Scriptures  among  the  vulgar.  The  acces- 
sion of  a  sovereign  whose  weak  title  necessitated  an 
alliance  with  the  upper  classes,  was  marked  by  the 
statute  "  De  heereticis  comburendis,"  which  required 
the  sheriff  to  burn  such  Lollard  preachers  as  should 
refuse  to  recant,  1400.  By  this  statute,  and  a 
supplementary  Act  of  Henry  V.,  provoked  by  the 
revolutionary  movement  of   Sir  John  Oldcastle,  the 


FOURTEENTH  CENTURY.  75 

reforming  movement  was  suppressed.  Wyclif's  Bible 
was  prohibited  by  the  "  Constitutions  "  of  Archbishop 
Arundel  (1408).  The  same  enactment  forbade  all 
preaching  unlicensed  by  the  diocesan,  and  thus  muz- 
zled both  the  friars  and  their  worst  enemies. 

Wyclif's  writings  found  their  way  to  the  University 
of   Prague,  and   did  much  to  foster  the 

f  The  Bohemian 

Bohemian  movement  which  brought  Hus     Movement 

begins. 

and  Jerome  to  the  stake.  Already  mecha- 
nical religion  had  been  attacked  by  Conrad  of  Wald- 
hausen,  a  Canon  of  Prague,  who,  like  Wyclif,  was 
embroiled  with  the  friars,  but  died  unmolested,  1369. 
The  visionary  Militz,  Archdeacon  of  Prague,  had  so 
boldly  denounced  ecclesiastical  abuses,  that  he  was 
cited  to  Avignon  by  Gregory  XI.,  but  had  died  while 
his  case  was  pending.  Matthias  of  Janow,  the 
Emperor's  confessor,  who  exposed  the  friars  in  "  The 
Abomination  of  Desolation,"  and  was  censured  but 
not  silenced  by  a  synod  at  Prague  in  1388,  is  notice- 
able as  advocating  the  daily  communion  of  the  laity, 
and  making  Scripture  the  only  source  of  religious 
knowledge.  But  the  real  initiator  of  the  Bohemian 
Reformation  was  John  Hus  (b.  1369),  who  when  at 
Prague  University  was  diverted  from  a  rigid  formalism 
by  reading  Wyclif's  works.  He  became  Rector  of  the 
University  in  1402,  and  synodal  preacher,  and  in  the 
latter  capacity  made  himself  conspicuous  for  vehe- 
ment denunciation  of  ecclesiastical  abuses.  Hus  took 
special  exception  to  the  abuse  of  excommunication, 
and  the  sale  of  indulgences,  but  he  did  not  accept 
Wyclif's  view  of  the  Eucharist.  He  maintained  to 
the  last  the  dogma  of  transubstantion.     His  career, 


76       MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

and  that  of  Jerome  his  supporter,  a  layman  of  noble 
family,  will  be  noticed  hereafter. 

We  have  yet  to   describe  the  Mystic  or  Quietist 
movement  in  Germany.      Henry  Eckart, 

The  Qiuietists.  ^  > 

the  Dominican  provincial  in  Saxony,  cir. 
1304,  had  advocated  a  pietism  of  Neo-Platonist 
character,  which,  though  condemned  by  Pope  John 
XXII.,  largely  influenced  the  devout  thinkers  of  this 
century.  Of  these  the  most  famous  was  the  *'  Illu- 
minated Doctor,"  John  Tauler,  also  a  Dominican. 
Tauler's  system  combined  religious  mysticism  with 
the  life  of  Christian  duty.  He  gave  offence  in  the 
great  year  of  pestilence,  1348,  by  ministering  to  the 
sufferers  in  Strasburg  despite  the  Papal  interdict. 
The  evangelical  tone  of  his  sermons  afterwards  won 
the  admiration  of  Luther.  Henry  von  Berg,  called 
Suso  (d.  1365),  was  a  Dominican  of  Constance,  who, 
after  a  life  of  severe  asceticism  attained  a  higher 
wisdom,  embodied  in  the  principle  of  self-abandonment 
to  the  Divine  will.  Ruysbroek,  the  ''  Ecstatic  Doctor  " 
(d.  1381),  taught  a  similar  system  in  Belgium,  and 
laid  claim  to  a  full  personal  inspiration.  Gerson,  to 
whom  the  "  Imitation  of  Christ "  has  been  ascribed, 
appears  to  have  modified  the  extravagances  of  Ruys- 
broek, and  tried  to  unite  quietist  devotion  with 
scholasticism.  In  1395  Gerson  became  Chancellor  of 
Paris,  and  during  the  next  ten  years  he  takes  a  pro- 
minent part  in  the  attempt  to  end  the  Papal  schism. 
In  his  tracts  Gerson  claims  for  the  Church,  even  for  the 
faithful  laity,  the  right  of  convoking  Genera]  Councils 
without  Papal  instigation.  He  holds  that  in  case  of 
necessity  the  Church  can  subsist  without  any  visible 


FOURTEENTH  CENTURY.  77 

head.  These  views  were  practically  endorsed  by  the 
Council  of  Constance,  in  its  enunciation  of  the  supe- 
riority of  councils  to  Popes. 

The  fourteenth  century  completed  the  Canon  Law 
of  the  Church.  Clement  V.  ordered  the  Qg^-^^^  i,aw 
determinations  of  the  Council  of  Yienne  Completed, 
and  certain  decrees  of  his  own  to  be  collected  in  five 
books.  These  were  sanctioned  in  a  consistory  of 
cardinals  in  1313.  The  "Clementines"  are  the  last 
authorised  addition,  though  the  decretals  of  the  learned 
John  XXII.  and  of  other  Popes  are  also  included  in 
the  Canon  Law  under  the  title  "  Extra vagants." 

The  old  struggle  with  respect  to  the  immunity  of 
clerical  criminals  seems  in  this  century  to  ^jj^g  clerical 
have  drifted  to  a  conclusion  unfavourable  status, 
to  the  ecclesiastics.  Hichard  11.  condemned  Arch- 
bishop Arundel  to  exile.  In  the  next  century 
Henry  IV.  tried  and  executed  certain  Franciscans 
and  priests,  who  conspired  against  him.  Henry  V.'s 
offence  in  beheading  Archbishop  Scrope  was  lightly 
treated  by  Gregory  XII.  France  furnishes  instances 
equally  significant.  The  constant  use  of  com- 
mendams  by  the  Popes  of  this  age  put  vast  wealth 
and  power  in  the  hands  of  a  few  favoured  prelates. 
Their  revenues  contrasted  shamefully  with  those  of 
the  parochial  clergy.  It  was  one  of  the  crying  scan- 
dals of  the  time  that,  while  some  clergy  were  greater 
than  secular  princes,  others  were  in  a  more  abject 
condition  than  the  lowest  menials. 

This  century  witnessed  the  conversion  of  the  last 
heathen  European  nation  of  consequence.  The  Polish 
heiress,  Hedwig,  married  Jagello,  king  of  Lithuania, 


78        MAJVUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

on  the  condition  that  his  territories  should  be  united 
Conversion  ^^^^  Poland,  and  his  subjects  be  baptised, 
of  Lithuania.  ^^  ;^3g2,  Jagello,  who  took  the  bap- 
tismal name  Ladislaus,  was  active  in  his  attempts 
to  convert  the  people,  and  himself  travelled  about, 
teaching  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  the  Decalogue.  It 
is  said,  however,  that  the  worship  of  fire  and  of 
serpents  lingered  in  this  region  in  the  fifteenth 
century. 

The   relations   between    West  and  East  were  em- 
„  ,  ,.       ^   bittered   by  the  failure  of  the  efforts  of 

Relations  of  '' 

the^stem    Gregory  X.      The  reconciliation   of   a.d. 

And  W  6 stern 

Churches.      1274    was     Speedily    followed    by    open 

Andronicus' 

Mission  of     hostilities.       Popes    Benedict    XI.     and 

Barlaam. 

Clement  V.  incited  Charles  of  Yalois  to 
claim  the  Eastern  Empire,  and  Clement  tried  to  give 
the  project  the  sanctity  of  a  crusade.  Later  on, 
we  find  overtures  made  by  the  Eastern  Emperor 
Andronicus,  prompted  however  only  by  fear  of  a 
Turkish  invasion.  This  business  brought  to  the 
court  at  Avignon  the  Calabrian  monk  Barlaam, 
1339.  Benedict  XII.,  however,  declined  to  allow 
the  differences  of  the  two  Churches  to  be  again 
submitted  to  a  council.  He  insisted  that  the  Greeks 
should  renounce  thek  errors  and  receive  instruction 
in  the  Western  faith.  The  mission,  therefore,  pro- 
duced no  results. 

Barlaam's    name   is   connected    with    the   strange 
Barlaam  and   '^  Hesychastic  "  controversy  of  the  East. 

the  Hesychastic  .,,.,.  , 

Controversy.  I  he  question  in  this  dispute  concerned 
the  quietist  monks  of  Mount  Athos,  who  professed 
to  gain  visions  of  the  Divine  radiance  by^prolonged 


FOURTEENTH  CENTURY.  79 

introspection.  It  was  debated,  not  whether  the 
visions  of  these  Hesychasts  were  real,  but  whether 
the  radiance  was  part  of  the  Godhead  or  a  "  creature." 
Barlaam  and  his  pupil,  Acindynus,  argued  against 
the  Hesychasts,  that  the  illumination  of  the  Saviour's 
body  at  His  transfiguration  could  not  be  uncreated  or 
Divine,  for  "  no  man  hath  seen  God  at  any  time." 
But  a  synod  at  Constantinople,  called  by  some  Greeks 
the  ninth  General  Council,  sided  with  Barlaam's 
chief  opponent,  the  Hesychast  Palamas,  and  a  subse- 
quent assembly  there  in  1350  declared  that  the  light 
of  the  Transfiguration  was  uncreated,  though  not  of 
the  Divine  oiisia.  This  synod  excommunicated  Bar- 
laam and  Acindynus,  and  declared  them  incapable 
of  forgiveness. 

More  negotiations  between  the  two  sides  of 
Christendom  took  place,  cir.  1350.  Eastern 
Cantacuzene,  the  usurping  domestic  who  with^thePapacy 
secured  his  throne  by  admitting  the  cantaculene. 
Ottomans  into  Europe,  was  eager  for  JohnPaiaeoiogus. 
a  reunion  of  the  Churches.  His  overtures  to  Clement 
VI.  were,  however,  broken  off  by  the  Pope's  death, 
and  his  own  expulsion  shortly  followed  (1355).  The 
legitimate  sovereign,  John  Palaeologus,  was  son  of  the 
Western  princess,  Anne  of  Savoy,  He  signalised  his 
restoration  by  making  more  conciliatory  advances  to 
Bome  than  had  yet  come  from  the  Byzantine  court. 
He  professed  his  own  conversion  to  the  Western 
faith,  did  homage  to  Urban  V.  in  St.  Peter's,  a.d. 
1369,  and  signed  the  formulae  of  Western  Christen- 
dom. But  Urban  in  vain  invited  the  powers  of 
Europe  to  help  John  against  the  Turks,  who  but  for 


80       MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

Bajazet's  defeat  by  Timur  at  the  battle  of  Angora,  in 
1402,  would  have  probably  given  the  final  blow  to  the 
Byzantine  empire. 

Farther  east,  Christianity  was  being  pushed  aside 
Decline  of     by  Mahommedanism,  the  religion  of  the 

Christianity  .  _,  ,  t         /^i  • 

farther  east,  couquermg  Mongols.  In  China,  cir. 
13G9,  an  expulsion  of  the  Mongols  was  followed  by  a 
jealous  exclusion  of  all  foreigners,  and  the  extinction 
of  the  Franciscan  mission.  Timur,  the  great  con- 
queror, conformed  to  Islam.  Soon  a  few  scattered 
communities,  chiefly  Nestorian,  alone  represented 
Asiatic  Christianity. 

In  point  of  doctrine  and  ceremonial  this  century 
Church  Dogma  Contributed  few  novelties  to  the  Western 
ui!ve3'c^r'y  Church.  The  dogma  of  the  Immaculate 
for  Reform.  Conception  made  its  way,  impugned  only 
by  the  Dominicans,  who  from  1387  to  1401  were 
excluded  from  Paris  University  for  their  opposition. 
Some  more  festivals  relating  to  the  life  of  the  Virgin 
were  now  added.  Thomas  Aquinas'  doctrine  of 
Indulgences  received  authoritative  Papal  sanction  in 
Clement's  bull  relative  to  the  Jubilee  of  1350.  The 
licensed  quoBstuaries,  or  stationers,  continued  to  drive 
their  trade,  but  both  the  graces  and  the  censures  of 
the  Papal  court  were  held  cheap  in  public  estimation. 
Though  more  than  a  century  was  to  pass  before  the 
purgation  of  the  Church  was  effected,  the  cry  for 
it  was  already  general,  and  waxed  louder  until  the 
failure  of  the  Councils  of  Constance  and  Basle  induced 
the  silence  of  despondency.  ''  In  all  varieties  of 
shapes  a  desire  for  lefoim  was  expressed  : — in  the 
treatises  of  such  theologians  as  Gerson,  d'Ailly,  and 


FOURTEENTH  CENTURY.  81 

Nicholas  of  C16manges ;  in  the  solemn  verse  of  Dante, 
and  in  the  indignant  letters  of  Petrarch  ;  in  popular 
poems,  stories,  and  satires,  such  as  the  '  Songe  du 
Vergier,'  the  free  tales  of  Boccaccio,  the  downright 
invectives  of  Piers  the  Ploughman,  and  the  living 
pictures  of  Chaucer ;  in  the  critical  spirit  which 
grew  up  within  the  universities ;  in  the  teaching  of 
Wyclif,  Hus,  and  their  followers;  in  the  utterances 
of  men  and  women  whose  sanctity  was  believed  to  be 
accompanied  by  the  gift  of  prophecy." 


CHAPTER  XV. 

FIFTEENTH       CENTURY. 

THE   rival    Popes,    Gregory   XII.    and    Benedict 
XIII.,    fairly    wearied    out    their    respective 
supporters    witli    their    evasions    and    subterfuges. 
The  Popes    Neither    would    resiarn    unconditionally, 

prolong  the  ° 

Schism,  and  each,  as  the  clamour  for  a  General 
Council  waxed  louder,  launched  excommunications  on 
those  who  should  attend  it.  Disgust  with  their  own 
candidates  finally  drew  together  the  cardinals  of  Kome 
and  Avignon,  and  both  parties,  with  the  support  of 
the  Universities  of  Florence,  Bologna,  and  Paris, 
issued  a  summons  for  a  council. 

In  March,  1409,  twenty-two  cardinals  and  a  host 
of  prelates,  divines,  and  royal  and  capitu- 

CouncilofPisa  ^  '  ^  •      -r,-        r^   ^i,    j      i 

Deposition  lar  representatives  met  m  Pisa  Cathedral. 
^  °^  '  England  (which  had  availed  itself  of  the 
schism  to  detain  the  revenues  due  to  the  Pope),  sent 
at  the  head  of  its  proxies  Hallam,  Bishop  of  Salisbury, 
with  a  gravamen.  This  denounced  certain  flagrant 
abuses  in  the  national  Church,  viz.  the  appropriation 
of  benefices  by  grasping  statesmen  and  prelates,  the 
non-residence  of  bishops,  the  sale  of  Papal  favours,  the 
exemption  of  monasteries  from  episcopal  control.  The 
verdict  of  the  council  overrode  Hildebrand's  principle 


FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.  83 

that  the  Pope  is  exempt  from  all  earthly  judgment, 
save  in  the  case  of  manifest  heresy.  Both  Popes  had 
refused  to  attend,  and  vented  their  spleen  by  convening 
opposition  councils,  Benedict  at  Perpignan,  Gregory 
at  Cividale.  Both,  therefore,  were  condemned  to  be 
stripped  of  all  dignities  as  having  scandalised  the 
Church  by  their  contumacy,  falsehood,  and  encourage- 
ment of  schism.  Their  excommunications  were 
annulled;  their  appointments  since  May,  1408,  de-* 
clared  void.  The  Council  demanded  the  aid  of  the 
secular  powers  in  case  of  their  continued  contumacy. 
The  next  task  was  the  election  of  a  pontiff  who 
should   command   the   full    allegiance    of 

°  Alexander  v. 

the  West.  The  choice  of  the  cardinals  BuU  in  favour 
fell  on  Philargi,  Archbishop  of  Milan,  a 
Franciscan  who  had  preached  at  the  opening  of  the 
Council.  Philargi  assumed  the  title  Alexander  V. 
The  Franciscan  Pope  was  of  blameless  life  and  studious 
habits.  But  his  career  was  unsatisfactory.  He  dis- 
gusted the  Church  by  a  bull  authorising  the  Fran- 
ciscans, Augustinians  and  Carmelites  to  receive 
tithes,  hear  confessions,  and  celebrate  the  sacraments 
in  all  parts  of  Christendom.  Not  only  were  the 
clergy  thus  deprived  •  of  their  peculiar  prerogatives ; 
they  were  charged  to  read  the  offensive  document 
publicly,  under  pain  of  being  treated  as  heretics. 
Everywhere  the  enactment  was  received  with  indigna- 
tion. Paris  University  at  once  expelled  all  mendicant 
friars  from  her  walls,  and  the  French  king  practically 
cancelled  the  bull  by  a  royal  proclamation.  Alexander 
died  next  year,  and  the  bull  was  revoked  by  his  suc- 
cessor John  XXIII.,  1410. 


84       MANUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

The  new  Pope  was  a  depraved  grasping  Neapolitan, 
who  had  been  Papal  chamberlain  at  Rome, 

John  XXIII. 

and  had  fostered  the  worst  abuses  of  the 
indulgence  market.  His  career  was  disgraceful  and 
his  elevation  is  unexplainable.  Ladislaus,  King  of 
Naples,  had  executed  two  of  the  Pope's  brothers  as 
pirates.  He  moreover  maintained  the  claims  of 
Gregory  XII.  despite  the  Council  of  Pisa.  John, 
having  vainly  decreed  his  excommunication  and  depo- 
sition, himself  headed  an  expedition  into  southern 
Italy.  This,  though  at  first  attended  with  success, 
brought  Ladislaus  in  triumph  to  Eome  in  1411.  The 
Pope  fled  to  Bologna,  and  put  himself  under  the 
protection  of  Sigismund,  the  most  powerful  emperor 
since  Frederic  II.  It  was  at  Sigismund's  instigation 
that  he  co-operated  in  citing  the  General  Council  of 
Constance,  which  proved  so  fatal  to  himself,  414-18. 
The  council  was  professedly  summoned  to  complete 
the  reunion  of  Western  Christendom,  to 

Council  of  ,      .        . 

Constance  judges  effect  ecclcsiastical  reform,  and  to  sup- 
press heretical  teaching.  It  opened 
November  5th,  1414.  It  was  well  attended,  its 
numbers  including  four  patriarchs,  twenty-nine  car- 
dinals, and  some  seven  hundred  bishops,  abbots, 
doctors,  and  provosts.  D'Ailly  and  Gerson  were 
among  the  French  representatives ;  of  the  eight 
English  bishops  the  most  prominent  was  Hallam. 
The  anti  popes  were  allowed  to  send  deputies.  For 
awhile  John  was  supreme  at  Constance.  The  Council 
riveted  its  attention  on  the  heretics  of  Bohemia,  with 
results  which  will  be  noticed  hereafter.  Gradually, 
however,  the  Fathers  of  Constance  realised  that  to 


FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.  85 

secure  unity,  orthodoxy,  or  reform,  the  depraved 
Head  of  Christendom  must  himself  be  uprooted.  A 
paper  of  charges  so  black  that  they  had  to  be  dis- 
cussed secretly,  was  produced  against  the  Pope,  Feb. 
1415.  The  rule  of  voting  by  ''nations"  prevented 
the  Italians  from  screening  their  eminent  country- 
man. Three  of  the  four  nations — the  German,  French, 
and  English — insisted  on  the  deposition  of  John 
XXIII.  The  Pope  now  surprised  and  delighted  the 
assembly  by  promising  to  resign.  He  only  stipulated 
that  Benedict  XIII.  and  Gregory  XII.  should  also 
withdraw  their  claims  to  the  pontificate.  But  this 
was  a  mere  device  to  gain  time.  John's  final  ex- 
pedient was  to  try  to  break  up  the  Council.  He  fled 
in  disguise  to  Schaafhausen,  and  there  protested 
against  the  management  of  afiairs  at  Constance — the 
tyranny  of  the  Emperor,  the  ascendancy  of  the  English 
and  Germans,  the  admission  of  laymen  on  an  equality 
with  the  hierarchy. 

But  only  five  cardinals  joined  the  Pope  at  Schaaf- 
hausen.     The  Council  decided  that  its 

Councils 

procedure  was  not  invalidated  by  John  s  declared  superior 

,  A  .  ^  ,     •      .  1       .  1      to  ^opes.     The 

absence.  At  Gerson  s  instance,  and  with  three  Popes 
the  concurrence  of  all  save  the  Italian 
cardinals,  it  confirmed  the  Pisa  procedure  by  distinctly 
subordinating  the  Papacy  to  General  Councils,  March, 
1415.  The  Pope  is  declared  to  be  bound  by  conciliar 
enactments.  A  Council  can  meet,  if  necessary,  without 
Papal  sanction ;  can  determine  a  reformation  of  the 
Church ;  can  even  command  the  resignation  of  a 
Pope.  Councils  should  be  held  periodically,  as  being 
the  supreme  and  irrefragable  exponents  of  the  Church's 


86       MANUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

requirements.  Thus  fortified,  the  assembly  proceeded 
to  deal  with  the  three  claimants  of  the  tiara.  John 
XXIII.  was  pronounced  contumacious  for  refusing  to 
return  to  Constance.  The  horrible  charges  against 
him  were  discussed,  and  he  was  declared  to  be  deposed 
from  the  Papacy.  He  was  apprehended,  committed  to 
the  charge  of  the  Elector  Palatine,  and  relegated  to  the 
castle  of  Heidelberg.  He  obtained  release  and  made 
submission  to  the  new  Pope  in  1417.  Gregory  XII. 
tendered  his  resignation  in  July,  1415.  He  was 
allowed  to  hold  office  as  Cardinal-Bishop  of  Porto, 
and  have  precedence  in  the  Sacred  College.  Bene- 
dict XIII.,  on  the  other  hand,  held  out  in  Spain. 
The  Emperor  vainly  went  to  negotiate  with  him  at 
Perpignan.  He  succeeded,  however,  in  detaching  his 
supporters,  and  in  1417  the  kingdoms  of  the  Peninsula 
joined  the  other  nations  of  the  Council  in  deposing 
the  Spanish  Pope  as  a  fautor  of  schism  and  heresy. 
The  assembly  now  engaged  in  a  protracted  dispute 
Election  of  whether  the  election  of  a  new  Pope  should 
hSSmeks'Se's  pi^ecede  or  follow  measures  of  reform, 
of  reform.  rpj^^  former  alternative  unfortunately 
prevailed.  It  was  decided  that  thirty  conciliar  dele- 
gates should  join  the  cardinals  in  the  work  of  election. 
A  dignified  and  irreproachable  cardinal,  Otto  of  Co- 
lonna,  obtained  an  overwhelming  majority  of  votes. 
The  decision  was  accepted  with  enthusiasm  by  all  at 
Constance,  and  Colonna  was  installed  with  more  than 
usual  pomp  as  Pope  Martin  V.,  November,  1417. 
But  again  Christendom  was  disappointed  in  its  head. 
The  Council  had  postponed  measures  of  reform ;  its 
new  master  at  once  posed  as  a  reactionist.     The  Papal 


FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.  87 

Chancery  was  generally  and  justly  regarded  as  the 
hotbed  of  the  worst  abuses  in  the  Church.  Martin 
immediately  issued  a  brief  confirming  its  present  status. 
Keservations,  Annates,  Dispensations,  Commendams, 
Indulgences,  were  all  to  escape  the  pruning-knife.  The 
Papal  brief  spoke  with  authority :  and  this  authority  was 
derived  from  the  Council  itself.  The  Parliament  was 
superseded  by  the  autocrat  of  its  choice.  The  Council 
of  Constance  dragged  on,  but  Martin,  not  Sigismund, 
was  its  president,  and  the  Pope  used  every  expedient 
to  stave  off  measures  of  reform.  He  utilised  national 
jealousies.  He  made  concordats  with  each  nation 
separately.  Petty  concessions  as  to  patronage,  tithes, 
and  national  representation  in  the  Sacred  College  were 
all  that  these  concordats  granted.  At  Whitsuntide, 
1418,  the  Council  dissolved,  leaving  every  pretentious 
canon  and  decretal  of  the  Popes  of  Hildebrand's 
school  unrepealed.  Western  Christendom  was  united 
but  it  remained  unreformed.  There  was  yet  one 
hope — a  delusive  one  as  it  proved.  It  was  ruled  that 
General  Councils  should  be  held  every  five  years. 
Something  might  be  done  for  the  reform  of  the 
Church  at  the  Council  to  be  held  at  Pisa  in  1423. 

The  third  purpose  of  the  gathering  at  Constance 
has  yet  to  be  noticed.  The  Council  had  The  Bohemian 
to  deal  with  the  heresies  of  Bohemia,  heresies. 
Hus  and  Jerome  appeared  before  it.  Since  our  last 
mention  of  Hus,  his  party  at  Prague  had  lost  repute. 
The  University  had  issued  a  sweeping  condemnation 
of  Wyclif's  writings.  Archbishop  Zbynko  had  joined 
the  reactionists,  condemned  the  works  of  the  English 
reformer   to   the  flames,  even  excommunicated   Hus 


88       MANUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

and  his  associates,  1410.  Hits,  however,  continued 
to  preach,  and  was  befriended  by  Wenzel,  the  deposed 
Emperor,  now  King  of  Bohemia.  Both  parties  had 
appealed  to  John  XXIII.  The  Pope  of  course  sided 
with  the  reactionists,  and  the  reforming  delegates 
to  Bologna  had  been  imprisoned  and  maltreated.  In 
1412  Prague  received  the  bull  proclaiming  the 
crusade  against  Ladislaus,  with  the  usual  indulgences. 
The  document  became  a  text  for  the  Hussite 
preachers.  Jerome  burnt  the  bull.  Hus,  despite 
Wenzel's  prohibitions,  inveighed  incessantly  against 
the  corruptions  of  the  Papacy,  and  his  writings  were 
spreading  fast  throughout  Europe.  To  this  time 
belongs  the  treatise  "Of  the  Church,"  the  most 
important  of  his  works.  A  Roman  Council  now 
excommunicated  him  and  interdicted  every  place  that 
should  receive  him. 

Hus  had  himself  frequently  demanded  a  General 
Trial  and      Council.    He  camc  willingly  to  Constance, 

Execution  of  TTi-r-.T«  ii  i 

Hus.  attended  by  Bohemian  nobles,  armed 
with  high  testimonials  of  character  and  orthodoxy, 
above  all  with  a  safe  conduct  from  Sigismund  himself. 
He  had  failed  to  realise  the  unfavourable  character 
of  this  assemblage.  To  secure  attention  to  practical 
abuses,  the  reforming  party  at  Constance  had  to 
dissociate  their  cause  from  all  suspicion  of  heresy. 
Doctrinal  changes  were  no  part  of  their  programme. 
The  reformers  Gerson  and  d'Ailly  themselves  sided 
with  Hus'  enemies.  John  XXIII.  was  as  yet 
supreme  at  the  Council.  He  contrived  that  Hus  should 
be  imprisoned  in  a  noisome  dungeon,  November,  1414. 
Sigismund,  at  first  indignant,  did  not  insist  on  his 


FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.  89 

release.  It  was  not  till  six  months  had  lapsed,  and 
John  had  fled  from  Constance,  that  the  intervention 
of  John  de  Chlum  and  other  friends  secured  him  a 
trial.  Hus'  case  was  prejudiced  by  the  unmeasured 
falsehoods  of  Michael  de  Causis,  the  Papal  proctor, 
and  Stephen  Palecz,  a  renegade  Hussite ;  also  by  the 
Council's  previous  condemnation  (May,  1415)  of  Wy- 
clif's  doctrines.  Hus,  however,  protested  that  he  did 
not  altogether  agree  with  Wyclif.  He  did  not  dis- 
parage tithes  or  question  Constantine's  donation. 
He  did  not  repudiate  the  dogma  cf  transubstantiation. 
For  awhile  an  acquittal  or  a  light  sentence  of  penance 
seemed  probable.  But  his  foes  carried  the  inquiry 
into  the  perilous  province  of  predestination.  From 
limiting  the  true  Church  to  the  predestined,  Hus  was 
drawn  into  an  admission  that  tenures,  lay  as  well  as 
spiritual,  were  cancelled  by  mortal  sin.  "A  king  in 
mortal  sin  is  no  king  before  God."  It  was  natural 
that  Sigismund  himself  should  declare  such  assertions 
worthy  of  death.  Yet  the  Council  still  kept  open  the 
gate  of  recantation,  even  that  of  qualified  submission. 
But  Hus'  conscience  spurned  such  means  of  escape. 
He  would  not  even  formally  abjure  what  had  been 
falsely  imputed  to  him.  After  another  month  in 
prison,  he  was  condemned  as  a  heretic  in  the  presence 
of  Sigismund,  and  degraded  from  the  priesthood. 
He  was  then  burnt  in  a  meadow  outside  the  town  of 
Constance,  July,  1415. 

Jerome,  like  Hus,  had  little  realised  his  peril.     He 
had  voluntarily  sought    Constance    with      Trial  and 
the  purpose  of   helping  his   friend.     He      Jerome. 
had  been  arrested  at  Hirschau,  imprisoned,  and  treated 


90        MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

with  cruel  severities.  Worn  out  by  hardships,  Jerome 
was  brought  before  the  Council  in  Sept.,  1415.  A 
partial  condemnation  of  the  errors  of  Wyclif  and  Hus 
was  wrung  from  him.  But  fresh  charges  were  con- 
cocted, fresh  abjurations  required  by  Michael  and 
Stephen  Palecz.  The  story  is  very  similar  to  that 
of  our  own  Cranmer's  end.  Jerome,  whose  final 
defence  exhibited  great  skill  and  learning,  revoked 
his  disclaimers,  and  declared  his  acceptance  of  all  the 
new  doctrines  except  Wyclif's  view  of  the  Eucharist. 
He  refused  to  make  further  concessions,  and  perished 
at  the  stake  with  great  fortitude,  May,  1416. 

The  pontificate  of  Martin  V.  was  regarded  after- 
wards as  a  golden  age  by  the  Komans. 
adorns  Rome ;  He  rescuod  the  city  from  the  anarchy  and 

his  exactions  in  i  i  • 

France  and  wrctchedncss  cousequcnt  on  the  schism, 
restored  churches,  erected  streets  and 
public  buildings,  and  so  distinguished  his  rule  by 
vigour  and  justice  as  to  earn  the  title  of  Rome's  thu'd 
founder.  Abroad  he  bore  a  different  reputation. 
Martin  clung  to  every  shred  of  the  hated  Papal  pre- 
rogatives, and  specially  favoured  France  and  England 
with  encroachments  on  national  right.  The  young 
king,  Charles  VII.,  was  persuaded,  in  spite  of  Gerson's 
remonstrances,  to  surrender  the  liberties  of  the  French 
Church,  in  1425.  In  England,  Martin's  use  of  pro- 
visions and  commendams  almost  outran  all  precedent. 
Thirteen  invasions  of  capitular  rights  occurred  in  two 
years  in  the  southern  province  of  this  Church.  Mar- 
tin's boy-nephew.  Prosper  Colonna,  became  Arch- 
deacon of  Canterbury,  and  a  great  effort  was  made 
to  establish  a  resident  legate  ci  latere  as  a  foil  to  the 


FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.  91 

national  primate.  But  despite  the  weakness  of  the 
throne,  Beaufort  of  Winchester,  the  Papal  legate, 
was  reduced  by  the  royal  council  to  impotency.  The 
"  execrable  "  statutes  of  Provisors  and  Prsemunire  out- 
lived the  Pope's  denunciations,  and  Archbishop  Chiche- 
ley,  when  suspended  for  his  opposition  to  Papal  ex- 
emptions and  adhesion  to  the  national  cause,  only 
appealed  to  a  General  Council. 

It  need  not  be  said  that  Councils  were  not  to  Mar- 
tin's mind.  The  appointed  Council  at  paUure  of 
Pa  via  had,  however,  been  reluctantly  Council  of  Pavia. 
summoned  in  1423.  It  was  at  once  transferred  to 
fSienna,  in  consequence  of  a  pestilence.  Few  besides 
Italians  attended  it,  and  its  work  was  limited  to  a 
condemnation  of  the  insurgent  Hussites.  When  the 
question  of  reform  was  raised,  Martin  dissolved  the 
Council  as  too  small  to  discuss  such  weighty  matters. 
It  was  prorogued  by  the  Pope  for  seven  years,  and 
was  then  to  meet  at  Basle. 

Affairs  in  Bohemia  had  assumed  an  importance 
that  dwarfed  all  ordinary  matters  of  The  utraquist 
controversy.  The  fate  of  Hus  and  Jerome  B^ohemia! 
had  here  aroused  intense  indignation.  The  Bohemians 
had  instituted  an  anniversary  to  commemorate  their 
martyrdom,  and  Wenzel  with  difficulty  prevented  a 
general  insurrection.  When  to  the  friend  of  Hus 
there  succeeded  his  betrayer,  Wenzel's  brother, 
Sigismund,  the  populace  rose  to  repudiate  the  hated 
sovereign,  1419.  The  revolt  became  a  religious  war — 
a  war  against  sacerdotalism — rivalling  the  Albigensian 
crusade  in  its  barbarous  cruelty,  outdoing  our  own 
Puritan  war  in  its  fanatical  misapplications  of  the 


92       MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

Hebrew  Scriptures.  On  one  point  all  the  Hussite 
sects  were  united.  The  Constance  Council — the 
destroyer  of  Hus — had  formally  sanctioned  the 
practice  of  administering  the  consecrated  wafer  of 
the  Eucharist  without  the  wine.  As  the  Church 
had  changed  the  law  of  the  Holy  Supper,  so  (it  was 
argued)  might  she  change  the  mode  of  administration. 
This  decree  of  the  hated  Council  was  made  the  special 
object  of  attack,  and  the  Bohemian  malcontents,  as 
demanding  administration  in  both  elements,  were 
known  as  ''  Utraquists."  Ziska,  who  headed  the 
insurrection,  displayed  on  his  banners  the  Eucharistic 
Cup.  The  enterprise  was  hallowed  by  the  celebrated 
open-air  communion  of  ''  Tabor,"  where  42,000 
Hussites  received  the  sacramental  wine  in  wooden 
chalices  at  the  hands  of  unvested  clergy 

Two  obscure  Bohemians  proved  themselves  in  the 
utraquists  ^^^^  twelvc  ycars  the  greatest  generals 
""'liskranf^of  the  age.  Fierce  and  pitiless  as  any 
Procopius.  warrior  of  Islam,  the  one-eyed  Ziska 
carried  fire  and  sword  throughout  Bohemia,  massacring 
clergy  and  monks,  burning  churches  and  convents. 
His  destructive  march  left  the  land  a  desert,  and 
effaced  for  ever  the  glories  of  its  ecclesiastical 
architecture.  Under  Ziska  a  peasant  force,  at  first 
armed  only  with  scythes  and  flails,  routed  repeatedly 
European  armies  of  100,000  or  200,000  men.  Vainly 
did  Martin  and  Sigismund  proclaim  a  crusade,  and 
raise  fresh  troops  by  dint  of  indulgences  and  heavy 
taxes.  The  Emperor  had  to  fly  from  Prague.  He 
was  badly  defeated  at  Wyschebrad,  at  Saaz,  at 
Deutschbrod,  1421-22.     The  four  Articles  of  Prague 


FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.  93 

were  drawn  up,  and  this  formula  of  Utraquism  was 
accepted  by  the  Archbishop  of  Prague  himself.     The 
great  Bohemian  leader  died  of  pestilence,  1424.     But 
the   Hussite   priest,    Procopius,  took   his   place   and 
proved   himself   as  good  a   general   as   Ziska.     The 
Hussites  no  longer   acted   on   the   defensive.     They 
advanced     on    the     west,    they    ravaged     Austria, 
Hungary,    Saxony,    burnt    Coburg    and    Bayreuth. 
Twice  were  huge  crusading  armies  marched  against 
Procopius,   to  fly  almost   without    striking    a    blow. 
Sigismund  gave  up  all  hope  of   reducing   Bohemia. 
It  elected  its  own  sovereign,  secured  the  aims  of  the 
^'Utraquists"  at  the  Council  of  Basle,  and  fortunately 
for   the   peace   of    Europe,    became   embroiled   with 
intestine  disputes.     The  wars  of  the  Utraquists  with 
the  "  Taborites,"  or  anarchical  Hussites,  need  not  be 
described.    Eventually  the  Utraquists  and  the  Roman- 
ists divided  Bohemia  on  terms  of  mutual  toleration. 
Practically  the  range  of  the  Bohemian  Reformation 
was  limited  by  the  Confession  of  Kuttenberg,  1441. 
Besides   claiming  the   sacrament   in   both   elements, 
this   formula   demands   that   it   be   administered    to 
children  as  well  as  adults.     It  insists  on  services  in 
the    vernacular,    and   abolition   of   clerical   celibacy. 
But  it  maintains  the  seven  sacraments,  transubstantia- 
tion,  the  elevation  of   the   host,   and   certain  other 
mediaeval  innovations. 

We  must  now  describe  the  proceedings  at  Basle, 

1431-49.        Eugenius     IV.,     a      narrow-  Council  of  Basle; 
.     ,     ,  .       .  _-  coerces 

minded  reactionist,  used  every  enort  to   Eugenius  iv. : 
upset  this  Council.     Comparatively  few    Aggressions. 
prelates  and  university  deputies  attended.     England 


94        MANUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

was  not  represented  till  1433,  and  afterwards  attached 
itself  to  the  rival  Council  at  Ferrara.  An  Englishman 
however,  one  Peter  Payne,  was  prominent  in  the 
Hussite  deputation,  which  included  the  great  priest- 
warrior  Procopius  himself.  The  concession  to  the 
Bohemian  insurgents  was  avowedly  granted  to  save 
Germany  from  their  inroads.  The  Council  ceded  the 
full  communion,  on  condition  the  Hussite  preachers 
should  explain  to  their  people  that  Christ  was  con- 
tained entire  in  each  element.  Against  Eugenius, 
who  had  pronounced  the  Council's  dissolution,  the 
divines  of  Basle  contended,  with  theii*  predecessors  at 
Constance,  that  Councils  were  superior  to  Popes. 
They  even  peremptorily  ordered  the  Pope's  attendance. 
Eugenius  thought  it  best  to  withdraw  the  bull  of 
dissolution  and  to  send  legates  to  the  Council.  They 
were  admitted  after  swearing  that  "all  men"  were 
subject  to  conciliar  authority.  The  Council  proceeded 
to  pass  decrees  for  freedom  of  ecclesiastical  elections. 
In  so  doing  it  denounced  the  familiar  Papal 
machinery — reservations,  annates,  expectative  appoint- 
ments, usurpations  of  patronage.  It  also  laid  down 
severe  rules  as  to  the  election  of  Popes,  and  their 
conduct  in  office. 

Eugenius  was  thus  goaded  to  renew  his  opposition. 

Election  of    In  1437  he  availed  himself  of  an  embassage 

Felix  Vi  Decay 

of  Council,  from  the  Greek  Church,  to  declare  the 
necessity  of  transferring  the  Council  to  Italy.  An 
assemblage  was  accordingly  convened  at  Ferrara, 
which  excommunicated  the  divines  of  Basle.  But 
the  Basle  Council  not  only  pronounced  that  at  Ferrara 
schismatical,  but  suspended  the  Papal  office  itself  in 


FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.  95 

its  own  favour.  Encouraged  by  the  support  of  its 
reforming  decrees  in  France  and  Germany,  it  at  last 
(1439),  under  the  guidance  of  its  sole  cardinal,  Lewis, 
Archbishop  of  Aries,  pronounced  the  Pope  deposed  as 
"  contumacious,  .  .  .  incorrigibly  schismatical,  and 
obstinately  heretical."  In  imitation  of  the  Council 
of  Constance  it  provided  for  the  election  of  the  new 
Pope  by  associating  with  the  Cardinal  Archbishop  of 
Aries,  thirty-two  members  of  all  the  nations,  and  from 
all  classes.  The  electors  chose  Amadeus,  w^ho  had 
resigned  the  Duchy  of  Savoy  to  become  Dean  of  the 
Knight-hermits  of  E,ipaille.  Amadeus,  the  last  of 
the  anti-Popes,  was  crowned  at  Basle  (1440)  w^ith  the 
title  Felix  Y.  But  neither  in  France  nor  Germany 
were  these  extreme  measures  popular.  The  refroming 
cardinal,  Cusanus,  who  had  already  joined  Eugenius 
at  Ferrara,  pointed  out  that  only  seven  bishops  had 
deposed  the  Pope,  whereas  twelve  were  required  to 
depose  a  Bishop.  Neither  the  French  king  nor  the 
new  Emperor,  Frederic  III.,  acknowledged  Felix. 
The  anti-pope  himself  cared  as  little  for  the  Papal 
tiara  as  for  the  crown  of  Savoy.  The  Council  lost  its 
leading  members  and  sunk  in  repute.  It  was  lifeless 
long  before  its  formal  dissolution  in  1449.  Kespect- 
ing  its  oecumenical  character,  in  part  or  throughout, 
there  is  diversity  of  opinion  in  the  Roman  Church. 

The  rival  Council  at  Ferrara  (afterwards  adjourned 
to  Florence)  is  notable  for  a  fresh  attempt  -g^^^^  council 
to   end   the   schism   of  East   and   West,  co^erdon  S W 
John   Palscologus  II.,    who   was   anxioas^"^^  ^®P^ties. 
to -protect  himself  against  the  Turks,  by  a  Western 
alliance,  was  courted  by  both  the  Councils.    Eventuallv 


96       MANUAL   OF  CHURCH   HISTORY. 

he  went  with  his  Patriarch  and  numerous  ecclesiastics 
to  Ferrara,  and  Eugenius  made  the  most  of  this 
triumph.  Four  chief  errors  were  ascribed  to  the 
Greeks.  They  concerned  the  procession  of  the  Holy 
Spirit ;  purgatory ;  the  use  of  leavened  bread  in  the 
Eucharist ;  the  primacy  of  the  Pope.  The  Emperor 
was  persuaded  that  the  Pope  could  supply  subsidies 
for  the  defence  of  Constantinople.  He  accordingly 
sold  the  faith  of  the  East  to  Eugenius.  The  Greek 
prelates,  with  the  connivance  of  John,  were  starved, 
coerced,  and  harassed,  both  at  Ferrara  and  at  Florence, 
till  they  had  all  accepted  Eugenius'  terms  of  pacifica- 
tion. The  four  points  were  settled,  not  so  much  in 
favour  of  Koman  Christianity  as  might  have  been 
anticipated.  But  it  was  a  manifest  surrender  of  the 
Greek  position,  and  the  deputies  returned  home  in 
shame,  to  find  the  compromise  indignantly  disowned. 
From  Florence  Eugenius  translated  the  Council  to 
Rome,  1443,  where  he  made  a  great  show  of  receiv- 
ing into  communion  certain  Copts,  Jacobites,  Maron- 
ites,  and  Armenians. 

Eugenius   was   strengthened   by   the   apostasy   of 
^.    ,    .  .    ^neas  Sylvius  Piccolomini,  who  deserted 

Piccolomini  "^ 

effects  a  Con-  the  reforming  party  to  become  the  Pope' s 
Secretary,  and  eventually  Pope  himself. 
In  1446  Eugenius  went  so  far  as  to  excommunicate 
the  Archbishops  of  Treves  and  Cologne  for  their  part 
in  the  Council  of  Basle.  But  their  brother  electors 
resented  this  as  an  indignity.  They  were  preparing 
to  cast  off"  their  neutrality,  and  acknowledge  the 
anti-pope,  when  ^neas  came  to  Frankfort  to  act  as 
mediator.     By  dint  of  forgery  and  bribes  this  skilled 


FIFTEENTH  CENTURY. 

diplomatist  effected  a  concordat  between  Eugenius 
and  the  Empire.  The  Pope  accepted  all  the  Con- 
stance decrees  and  some  of  those  passed  at  Basle. 
He  forgave  all  who  had  taken  part  in  the  latter 
Council.  The  Diet  acknowledged  Eugenius  as  St. 
Peter's  representative.  This  Pope  died  soon  afterwards. 
His  successor,  Nicholas  V.  1447,  was  fortunately  a 
man  of  liberal  views  and  conciliatory  temper.  He 
confirmed  the  concordat,  and  propitiated  Felix's  sup- 
porters by  making  the  former  anti-Pope  head  of  the 
Sacred  College,  ^neas  continued  to  be  the  Papal 
Secretary.  He  secured  from  the  Empire,  by  renewed 
bribery,  a  reversal  of  the  Basle  decree  wdth  reference 
to  the  Papal  malpractices.  Annates  and  Peservations 
were  resumed,  with  slight  modification,  and  Germany 
became  again  subject  to  the  burdens  which  she  had 
been  struggling  against  for  thirty  years. 

Nicholas  was  a  patron  of  learning.     The  Kterary 
impulse  which  was  destined  to  turn  the 

^     e       f  ^-         •    1.  1  1  The  Revival  of 

current  oi  reiormation  into  a  new  channel  Letters  under 
begins  with  this  pontificate.  The  fall  of 
Constantinople,  1453,  however  disastrous  to  Chris- 
tianity, greatly  assisted  the  intellectual  movement. 
The  Greek  fugitives  found  a  ready  welcome  in  Italy, 
and  by  the  revival  of  Greek  letters  the  protracted 
supremacy  of  the  Schoolmen  was  gradually  undermined. 
Nicholas  himself  enriched  the  Vatican  library  with 
5000  MSS.,  and  the  researches  of  his  literati  brought 
to  light  many  classical  treasures.  The  movement  was 
soon  to  receive  unexpected  facilities  in  the  general  use 
of  the  printing-press.  Even  thus  early  we  find  the 
"  New  Learning  "  menacing  the  bulwarks  of  Popery, 

7 


98       MANUAL  OF  GIIURGH  HISTORY. 

for  Valla,  one  of  its  luminaries,  skilfully  exposed  the 
fictitious  Donation  of  Constantino.  Valla  had  nar- 
rowly escaped  the  Inquisition  under  Eugenius  IV. 
Nicholas  V.,  however,  had  no  such  professional  zeal. 
He  made  the  scholarly  innovator  his  private  secre- 
tary. The  Pope  patronised  art  as  well  as  literature. 
Painters,  sculptors,  and  architects  now  flocked  to 
Home.  The  new  cathedral  of  St.  Peter's  was  in 
contemplation;  the  Pantheon  was  being  restored. 
In  the  provincial  towns  splendid  buildings  were 
erected.  These  useful  works  were  aided  by  the  jubilee 
of  the  half-century,  which  was  more  successful  in  the 
indulgence  traffic  than  any  jubilee  since  1300.  Frederic 
III.'s  coronation  in  1452  is  noticeable  as  the  last 
occasion  when  an  emperor  was  crowned  at  Pome. 
Nicholas  died  while  his  agents,  Piccolomini  and  John 
of  Capistrano,  were  inciting  Europe  to  a  crusade  for 
the  recovery  of  Constantinople,  1455. 

To  this  business  Calixtus  IV.  devoted  all  his  ener- 
Oaiixtusiv.  and  gi^s.     A  force  of  40,000  men,  raised  by 

the  Crusade.  Capistrano's  eloquence,  and  led  by  Hu- 
niades,  succeeded  in  driving  the  Turks  from  Belgrade 
with  great  loss  in  1456.  But  the  success  only  con- 
firmed Europe  in  its  attitude  of  apathetic  indifference, 
and  the  Emperor's  grant  of  the  crusading  tithe  excited 
a  vehement  opposition  in  Germany.  Calixtus'  age 
and  infirmities  partly  excuse  the  nepotism  which 
disgraced  this  pontificate.  Two  nephews,  Peter  and 
Poderick  Borgia,  were  loaded  with  benefices  and 
honours,  and  corrupted  Pome  by  their  flagrant  mal- 
administration. 

Piccolomini,  who  to  his  diplomatic  ability  joined 


FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.  99 

other  and  more  respectable  talents,  was  now  eleva- 
ted, with  the  title  of  Pius  II.,  1458.     To 

'       ,  1      -,  1  -,  Pius  II.     The 

push  the  crusade  he  gathered  a  congress  BuU"Execra- 
at  Mantua,  which  is  chiefly  memorable  of  Pragmati? 
for  Pius'  promulgation  of  the  bull  Execra- 
hilis,  1460.  This  was  a  practical  repudiation  of  the 
principle  endorsed  at  Constance  and  Basle.  It  de- 
clared any  appeal  from  a  Pope  to  a  Council  to  deserve 
excommunication  or  interdict.  As  ^neas  Sylvius 
Piccolomini,  the  Secretary  at  Basle,  the  Pope  had 
repeatedly  justified  this  execrated  practice.  The 
inconsistency  was  explained  away  in  the  Pope's  "  Bull 
of  Becantation,"  1463,  the  keynote  of  which  is  "  Re- 
ject ^neas,  receive  Pius."  The  old  ideas  as  to  Papal 
supremacy  were  emphasised  in  this  pontificate.  The 
versatile,  worldly  ^neas,  became  the  exponent — the 
last  exponent — of  Hildebrand's  ideal.  The  policy  of 
the  Pope  was  successful  in  France.  Here  the  synod 
of  Bourges,  1438,  had  gladly  accepted  the  anti-papal 
procedure  at  Basle,  and  embodied  it  in  the  "Prag- 
matic Sanction."  Annates  and  expectatives  were 
abolished.  Appeals  to  the  Boman  Court  were  Hmited ; 
interference  with  rights  of  patronage  was  prohibited. 
Even  abuse  of  excommunication  and  interdict  was 
guarded  against.  But  Lewis  XI.  expressed  his  hatred 
of  his  father  by  repealing  the  Pragmatic  Sanction, 
1461,  and  France  was  thus  again  laid  open  to  Papal 
aggression.  Pius  II.  continued  to  the  end  of  his  Ufa 
to  urge  Europe  to  the  crusade.  He  himself  addressed 
a  singular  letter  to  Mohammed  I.,  imploring  him  to 
exchange  his  religion  for  Christianity.  But  the  pro- 
ject dropped  with  the  accession  of  the  coxcomb  pontiff 


100     MANUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

Paul  II.,  who  is  only  memorable  as  the  author  of  the 
existent  carnival  ceremonial. 

With  Sixtus  IV.  1471-84,  the  Papacy  enters  on  a 
new  phase.     It  poses  as  a  great  secular 

The  Secvdarising  -r*         i  i  • 

Popes,         power.      Papal  nepotism  now  grasps  at 
Innocent  viii.,  temporal  rather  than  ecclesiastical  dig- 
nities, and  establishes  the  Pope's  relations 
as  princes  and  nobles.    This  is  perhaps  the  worst  period 
of  Papal  history.     Sixtus  is  chiefly  noticeable  for  pro- 
motion  of   unworthy  relatives,   oppressive   taxation, 
and  disreputable  life.     To  aid  the  aspirations  of  his 
nephew   Jerome    Piario   at   Florence,  he   compassed 
the  conspiracy  to  assassinate  the  Medici,  1478.     Its 
ignominious  failure  induced  him  to  conduct   a  war 
against   the   Florentines.      Their    abject    submission 
was  only  accepted  when  Ottoman  successes  called  the 
Papal  troops  to  the  recovery  of  Otranto,  1480-81.    A 
similar  design  to  advance  his  family  at  Venice  occu- 
pied Sixtus  till   his  death.       Under   this   Pope   the 
minorite  Friar,  Francis  of  Paola,  obtained  a  licence 
for  his  order  of  mendicant  "  Hermits,"  a  brotherhood 
much  befriended  by  the  superstitious  French  king, 
Lewis  XI.      The  older  Franciscans  having  assumed 
the  title  "  minorites,"  Francis,  in  the  excess  of  humi- 
lity,  named  his  followers  "minims."      Sixtus'  death 
was  followed  by  the  intrigues  and  demands  of  future 
favours,  now  customary  on  the  part  of  the  electing  car- 
dinals.   The  election  raised  to  the  pontificate  Innocent 
VIII.,  1484,  who  used  the  Papal  revenues  to  provide 
handsomely  for  his  seven  illegitimate  children.  Violence 
and  faction-war  distracted  Rome  throughout  his  reign, 
and  criminals  of  all  sorts  secured  immunity  by  purchase. 


FIFTEENTH  CENTURY,  101 

Innocent,  however,  was  outdone  by  the  unprincipled 
.and  immoral  Koderic  Borgia  (Alexan- 
der VI.),  who  by  lavish  bribery  obtained  Pontificate  of 
the  pontificate  in  1492.  His  bastard 
sons,  Peter  Lewis  and  Caesar,  were  respectively  made 
Duke  of  Benevento  and  Cardinal  Archbishop  of 
Valencia.  The  former  was  assassinated  by  the  agents 
of  his  clerical  brother  in  1497.  Lucretia,  the  Pope's 
daughter,  after  getting  rid  of  three  or  four  husbands, 
married  Alfonso,  the  heir  of  Ferrara.  To  secure 
her  son's  position,  the  Duke  of  Sermoneta  and  his 
family  were  made  away  with.  The  Vatican  was 
polluted  by  obscene  revels  at  which  Alexander  and 
Lucretia  themselves  presided.  The  Sacred  College 
was  filled  with  puppets  of  the  Papal  tyrant.  Caesar 
Borgia  secured  a  French  duchy  by  providing  the  new 
French  king,  Lewds  XII.,  with  bulls  for  his  divorce 
and  re-marriage.  Throwing  off  the  clerical  profession, 
this  cardinal-archbishop  became  a  layman,  obtained 
the  hand  of  Lewis'  niece,  and  aided  the  French  ex- 
pedition against  Naples  with  his  matchless  perfidy 
and  inhumanity.  In  1499  Caesar  effected  the  expul- 
sion of  the  Papal  vicars  from  the  Pomagna,  and 
appropriated  this  part  of  the  Church's  patrimony. 
The  Abbey  of  Subiaco,  with  its  eighteen  castles,  were 
shortly  added.  The  intimidated  cardinals  consented 
to  these  acts  of  spoliation.  Under  Alexander  such 
old  abuses  as  sales  of  offices,  traffic  in  indulgences,  and 
misappropriation  of  crusade  funds,  reached  an  excess 
hitherto  unknown.  The  Pope's  J?«5  exuviaritm  itself  be- 
came a  deadly  weapon.  With  an  Alexander  VI.  for  their 
heir,  wealthy  cardinals  demised  with  amazing  celerity. 


102      MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

Meantime  the  frightful  evils  of  the  age  had  roused 
Savonarola  ^^^  voice  of  Savonarola  at  Florence.  The 
at  Florence,  career  of  this  Dominican  reformer  illus- 
trates the  facility  with  which  religious  enthusiasm 
lapses  into  spiritual  pride  and  self-deception.  Yet  his 
noble  character  and  high  aims  almost  blind  us  to  the 
falsehood  of  his  pretensions,  and  his  overweening  love 
of  dominion.  Savonarola,  as  prior,  had  effected  a 
thorough  reformation  of  St.  Mark's  monastery  in  1491. 
He  attempted  a  reformation  of  Florence  itself,  and 
soon  gained  celebrity  by  his  eloquent  denunciations  of 
social  vices.  He  included  in  his  attack  the  aesthetic 
and  literary  tendencies  of  the  Florentines,  which  he 
considered  pernicious  to  the  spiritual  life.  Like  other 
religious  leaders  he  claimed  to  see  visions  and  utter 
prophecies.  The  fulfilment  of  some  of  his  predictions 
soon  raised  him  to  a  dangerous  fame.  Among 
Savonarola's  measures  for  reforming  Florence,  the 
most  singular  was  the  transformation  of  the  Carnival 
frivolities  in  1496-7.  The  street  boys  were  employed 
to  demand  of  the  citizens  a  surrender  of  their 
"  vanities,"  and  these  were  heaped  in  an  immense  pile 
and  burnt.  In  Savonarola  the  patriotism  of  the 
republican  blended  with  the  religious  zeal  of  the 
reformer,  and  to  his  influence  the  establishment  of 
the  Florentine  constitution  was  chiefly  due.  His 
persistent  antagonism  to  the  Medici,  whose  faction 
was  still  powerful  at  Florence,  largely  accounts  for 
his  downfall.  The  repulsion  natural  between  two 
such  natures  had  already  roused  against  Savonarola 
the  suspicions  of  Alexander  YI.  A  Papal  agent  was 
vainly  sent  to  silence  the  preacher  of  righteousness 


FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.  103 

with  an  offer  of  promotion  to  the  cardinahite.  A 
pretext  for  excommunication  was  found  in  Savonarola's 
refusal  to  obey  the  Pope  in  respect  to  certain  details 
of  management  at  St.  Mark's,  1497.  Savonarola 
proceeded  to  denounce  the  exaggerated  claims  of  the 
Papacy  and  the  vices  of  the  Roman  Court.  Against 
him  were  arrayed  the  Medici  faction,  the  Franciscans, 
and  most  of  the  secular  clergy.  A  curious  feature  in 
the  struggle  that  ensued  was  the  proposal  to  appeal 
to  an  ordeal  of  fire,  such  as  the  monk  "  Petrus 
igneus  "  had  braved  in  the  eleventh  century.  This 
challenge,  offered  by  a  Franciscan  monk,  was  accepted 
by  Savonarola,  and  representatives  of  his  own  and 
the  antagonistic  party  were  appointed.  But  at  the 
last  this  singular  arrangement  fell  through.  The 
ordeal  did  not  take  place,  and  the  mob,  baulked  of  an 
expected  spectacle,  laid  the  blame  on  Savonarola.  His 
persecutors  availed  themselves  of  its  co-operation.  St. 
Mark's  was  violently  entered.  The  prior  and  his  lead- 
ing follower  Dominic  of  Pescia  were  imprisoned  and 
examined  under  torture.  Kome  vied  with  Florence 
to  be  the  executioner  of  this  enemy  of  social  and 
ecclesiastical  abuses.  The  Papal  commissioners 
succeeded  in  conducting  the  final  examination,  but 
the  punishment  was  on  the  scene  of  the  offence.  Save 
for  his  pretence  to  inspiration,  Savonarola  was  mani- 
festly guiltless  of  heterodoxy.  To  give  colour  to 
this  groundless  charge,  the  acts  of  the  process  were 
falsified.  The  great  Florentine  reformer  was  hanged 
and  burnt.  May,  1498,  with  Dominic  and  Sylvester 
Maruffi.  His  relics  were  eagerly  sought  by  his 
adherents,  and  were  credited  with  miraculous  powers. 


104      MANUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

The  discoveries  of  new  regions  in  this  century  led 
Extension  of  ^^  ^  ^ast  extension  of  the  domain  of 
Christendom.  Christendom.  On  the  principle  that  newly 
discovered  lands  belonged  to  Rome,  Alexander  VI. 
marked  the  boundary  line  of  Spain  and  Portugal 
in  America.  We  need  not  recount  the  atrocious 
cruelties  by  which  these  Christian  nations  enforced 
CathoHcism  on  the  New  World  throughout  the  century 
succeeding.  In  Africa  the  Portuguese  explorations 
led  to  the  foundation  of  the  Congo  settlement  and  the 
baptism  of  many  natives,  in  1484.  The  discovery  of 
the  Cape  Passage  also  brought  Western  Christendom 
into  acquaintance  with  the  ancient  Churches  of 
Abyssinia  and  Malabar. 

Nearer  home,  missionary  zeal  devoted  itself  to  the 
Persecution  of  torturo  of  Jews  and  Mahommedans.  The 
Mahommedans.  Inquisitiou  had  obtained  royal  sanction 
for  the  correction  of  heresy  in  Aragon  and  Castile, 
and  some  two  thousand  suspects  were  burnt  under 
the  grand  Inquisitor  Torquemada  between  1481  and 
1485.  In  1492  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  issued  the 
order  that  all  Jews  should  receive  baptism  or  leave 
Spain.  A  similar  order  was  issued  against  the  Jews 
of  Portugal  somewhat  later  by  King  Emanuel.  It  is 
questionable  which  fared  best,  the  harassed  and 
plundered  emigrants,  or  those  who  remained  to  attract 
the  ceaseless  suspicions  of  the  inquisitors.  Torque- 
mada's  zeal  was  rivalled  by  the  exertions  of  the 
austere  Franciscan  Ximenes,  Archbishop  of  Toledo, 
in  proselytising  the  Moors.  Some  three  thousand 
were  persuaded  or  coerced  by  Ximenes  to  receive 
baptism    in    one    day,    1499.      The  intolerance    of 


FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.  105 

Ximenes  (himself  a  man  of  letters),  induced  him  to 
order  the  wholesale  destruction  of  Arabic  literature. 
The  consequent  revolt  at  Granada  led  to  the  decree 
of  1502,  by  which  the  Mahommedans  were  offered 
the  same  alternatives  as  the  Jews. 

Witchcraft  in  this  century  brought  many  to  the 
stake.     The  Inquisition's  oreunised  assault 

■^  The  Inquisition 

on  Vauderie,  in  Arras,  1459,  exposed  mal-     checked  in 

PI  1  T  France. 

practices  or  the  usual  grotesque  character, 
and  the  victims  of  enforced  confession  were  burnt, 
imprisoned,  or  fined.  The  French  parliament,  how- 
ever, interfered  to  check  these  cruelties,  and  the 
indignation  they  excited  led  (cir.  1521)  to  the  dis- 
appearance of  the  Inquisition  from  France. 

The  fanaticism  of    the  earlier   sectaries   had   now 
largely  given  place  to  the  solid  schemes 
of  such  reformers  as  Wyclif   and   Hus.  Religious  Enthu- 


In  England,  however,  the  turbulent 
Lollards  occasionally  endangered  government,  and  in 
Bohemia  the  Taborite  ascendancy  left  behind  the  per- 
nicious and  immoral  sect  called  "Fossarii."  A  few 
doctrinal  reformers  remain  to  be  mentioned.  John 
of  Goch,  prior  of  Mechlin  (cir.  1450),  seems  to  have 
anticipated  Luther's  doctrine  of  justification,  but  little 
is  known  of  his  career.  John  Keichrath  of  Oberwesel, 
was  roused  by  the  jubilee  of  1450  to  denounce  the 
indulgence  system.  He  became  noted  as  an  anti- 
papal  preacher  at  Worms,  and  in  1479  was  forced  to 
make  a  retractation  of  errors.  The  charge  alleges 
that  he  denied  original  sin,  the  double  procession, 
episcopacy,  clerical  celibacy,  and  the  merits  of  fasting. 
John  Wessel  was  born  at  Groningen  (cir.   1429),  and 


106     MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  IIISTOm . 

went  from  Cologne  University  to  Paris,  where  he 
seems  to  have  taught  a  system  akin  to  Zwingle's 
rather  than  to  Luther's.  The  latter,  however,  ac- 
knowledges him  as  his  forerunner.  John  was  styled  by 
his  admirers  "  the  light  of  the  world."  He  eventually 
withdrew  to  Holland,  where  the  favour  of  the  Dutch 
prelates  sheltered  him  from  all  molestation  [d.  1489). 
In  England  Reginald  Pecock  curiously  blended  ex- 
treme assertions  of  Papal  right  of  taxation  with  a 
theology  of  an  eclectic  character.  After  the  over- 
throw of  the  Duke  of  Suffolk,  who  had  translated 
him  from  St.  Asaph  to  Chichester,  Pecock  was  im- 
pugned for  novel  doctrine  and  incitement  to  revolt. 
He  was  tried  by  Archbishop  Bourchier,  and  saved 
himself  from  a  heretic's  death  by  an  ignominious 
retractation  of  various  errors  at  Paul's  Cross, 
1458.  What  his  opinions  were  is  uncertain.  It 
would  seem  that  he  was  convinced  that  Fathers 
and  Councils  had  frequently  erred.  This  would  be 
sufficient  basis  for  much  factitious  accusation. 

Monasticism   in   this   century   gave   birth,   as  we 
have  seen,  to  the  Order  of  Minims,  which 

Monasticism.  .    ,    .       ,  -,         p         ,  ,      • 

maintained  a  rule  oi  extreme  austerity, 
and  planted  many  houses  in  Italy,  France,  and  Spain. 
Discipline  in  the  older  systems  had  decayed,  and  at- 
tempts to  renew  it  were  by  no  means  tamely  suffered. 
The  Benedictines  of  England,  however,  were  partially 
reformed  in  1421,  and  those  of  Germany  underwent  a 
purgation  initiated  at  the  monastery  of  Bursfeld.  In 
Spain,  Ximenes,  as  Provincial  of  his  Order,  effected  a  re- 
form of  the  Franciscan  convents,  which  was  afterwards 
extended  to  other  Orders,  and  to  the  secular  clergy. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

SIXTEENTH    CENTURY. 

THE  poison  he  had  prepared  for  a  wealthy  car- 
dinal carried  off  Alexander  YI.  in  1503.     The 
short  pontificate  of  Pius  III.  need  not  be      Decay  of 

religion  at 

noticed.  Julius  IL,  1503-13,  rising  above  Rome, 
the  selfish  nepotism  of  his  predecessors,  laboured  to 
extend  and  consolidate  the  dominions  of  the  Papacy. 
He  recovered  the  territories  appropriated  by  Caesar 
Borgia,  made  himself  master  of  Bologna  and  Perugia, 
and,  taking  the  field  against  the  Venetians,  added 
to  St.  Peter's  domains  Parma,  Piacenza,  and  Peggio. 
To  Julius  succeeded  John  de  Medici,  with  the  title 
Leo  X.  1513-22.  The  patron  of  Ariosto,  Eaphael, 
and  Machiavelli,  Leo  surpassed  Nicholas  V.  in  pro- 
moting the  cause  of  literature  and  art.  But  religious 
zeal  was  extinct  at  Rome  during  this  pontificate. 
Philosophers  disputed  whether  the  soul  had  any 
individual  existence;  the  fashionable  classes  afiected 
infidelity ;  the  cult  of  the  lower  orders  was  one  of 
gross  superstition  and  lifeless  formalism. 

Elsewhere,    however,    the   old   yearnings  for  pure 
Christianity  were  being  strengthened  by  The  two  Refor- 
the  printing-press  and  the  literary  renais-       Luther, 
sance.     The  circulation  of  the  Scriptures  had  enabled 


108     MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

many  thoughtful  and  devout  minds  to  contrast 
Mediaeval  Catholicism  with  the  Christianity  of  the 
Apostolic  Age,  and  the  cause  of  Reformation  only 
waited  for  fit  leaders.  Saxony  and  Switzerland,  in 
Leo's  reign,  produced  them.  Mighty  religious  move- 
ments ensued,  destined  to  affect  every  part  of  Western 
Christendom.  We  will  first  treat  of  the  German 
Reformation,  initiated  at  Wittenberg.  Martin 
Luther,  an  Augustinian  friar  from  Erfurt,  had 
been  appointed  philosophical  lecturer  at  Wittenberg 
in  1508.  Disgusted  with  scholastic  pedantries, 
and  diverted  from  the  mechanical  system  of  the 
Church  to  the  realities  of  the  spiritual  life  within, 
Luther  was  at  last  provoked  to  open  antagonism  by 
the  appearance  of  a  Dominican  friar  hawking  in- 
dulgences at  Wittenberg,  1517.  The  skirmish 
with  Tetzel  brought  him  into  conflict  with  higher 
personages.  The  customary  complaint  to  the  Pope 
followed,  and  at  Augsburg  Luther  confronted  the 
Papal  Legate,  Thomas  Cajetanus.  By  denying  the 
existence  of  the  meritorious  treasury  of  the  Church, 
Luther  traversed  a  decision  of  Pope  Clement  VI. 
Of  necessity  he  went  on  to  impugn  the  Pontiff's 
supreme  authority,  w^hich  he  declared  to  be  limited 
by  Scripture,  the  Fathers,  the  Councils,  even  by 
individual  reason.  These  views  were  again  enun- 
ciated at  Leipzig,  where  Luther  was  opposed  by  the 
learned  and  eloquent  Eck,  Vice-Chancellor  of  the 
University  of  Ingoldstadt.  The  Dominicans  induced 
Leo  X.  to  denounce  the  Reformer  in  a  bull,  1520. 
But  so  strong  was  Luther's  position  that  the  docu- 
ment was  ignominiously  burnt  at  Wittenberg. 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY.  109 

Luther's  cause  had  already  been  joined  by  Martin 
Bucer,  a  Dominican  of  Alsace,  and  Philip  Analysis  of  the 
Schwarzerd  ("  Melancthon  "),  an  erudite  ^^^  ^^'°^°^' 
scholar  who  did  much  to  systematize  the  German 
Reformation.  The  salient  feature  in  the  new 
theology  was  the  association  of  Divine  forgiveness 
with  an  internal  impression  of  personal  acceptance 
through  the  Saviour's  grace,  rather  than  with  an 
external  or  ecclesiastical  system.  This  impression 
Luther  identified  with  the  "justifying  faith"  of 
St.  Paul's  Epistles.  He  regarded  it  as  a  supernatural 
gift  limited  by  God's  preordained  purpose.  In  their 
revolt  from  mediaeval  mechanism,  the  Lutherans  were 
at  first  inclined  to  undervalue  repentance  as  a  con- 
dition, and  good  w^orks  as  the  fruit  of  justifying  grace. 
But  from  this  danger  they  were  diverted  by  the 
scandalous  excesses  of  the  Anabaptists,  to  be  noticed 
hereafter.  In  the  place  of  ecclesiastical  authority 
they  set  the  Bible,  which  they  styled  the  "  Word  of 
God."  Nothing  was  necessary  to  salvation  which 
could  not  be  proved  therefrom.  This  substitute  for 
the  shattered  infallibility  of  the  Church  found  place 
in  all  the  Reforming  systems  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
That  the  limits  and  interpretation  of  the  Hebrew  and 
Greek  Scriptures  could  only  be  defined  by  literary 
tribunals,  was  a  point  obscured  in  the  turmoil  of 
religious  warfare.  Yet  the  first  Peformers  were  no 
blind  Bibliolaters.  Luther,  Melancthon,  CEcolampa- 
dius,  Carlstadt,  and  Calvin,  all  more  or  less  impugned 
the  graphed  antilegomenai,  and  the  great  Saxon 
Reformer  imitated  Marcion  in  demarcating  those 
Scriptures   which   contained   the    "kernel   of   Chris- 


110     MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

tianity."  Among  Luther's  antilegomenai  were  in- 
cluded the  "  Hebrews  "  and  Epistle  of  "  James,"  and 
about  both  he  wrote  with  scant  respect.  Eventually, 
however,  the  Eeformed  bodies  tacitly  evaded  such 
questions,  and  accepted  the  N.  T.  of  the  Mediaeval 
Church.  In  the  0.  T.  they  substituted  the  Jewish 
Canon  for  Augustine's,  and  assigned  an  inferior 
degree  of  authority  to  the  ejected  or  "Apocryphal" 
books.  All  the  Reformers  advocated  the  circulation 
of  the  Scriptures  in  vernacular  translations,  and  the 
substitution  of  vernacular  for  Latin  prayers. 

The   objective   system,  which   had    engendered    so 

many    degrading    superstitions,    was    of 

mental       course    assailed    by   all    the    Keformers. 

Consubstanti-  But   not   unitedly.       In   respect   to    the 

sacraments  they  were  unable  to  agree, 
save  in  certain  negations.  These  were  anticipated 
in  Luther's  "  Babylonish  Captivity  of  the  Church " 
(1520),  a  Wittenberg  counterblast  to  Leo's  bull, 
exposing  the  sacramental  errors  of  medisevalism.  The 
doctrine  of  "seven"  sacraments  is  here  roughly 
handled.  Luther  practically  limits  the  term  "  sacra- 
ment" to  the  lines  of  our  own  English  Catechism, 
and  assigns  a  distinctly  superior  rank  to  the  means 
of  grace,  with  external  signs  ordained  by  Christ 
Himself.  He  discards  the  theory  that  Ordination 
confers  a  distinctive  or  indelible  character,  and  main- 
tains that  the  official  priest  is  merely  primus  inter 
pares.  He  of  course  insists  on  the  administration  of 
the  Eucharist  in  both  elements.  While  maintaining 
the  doctrine  of  a  Real  Presence  vouchsafed  to  the 
truly  faithful   communicant,    he   denounces  the  me- 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY.  Ill 

chanical  theory,  together  with  E-adbertus'  dogma  of 
transubstantiation.  Luther's  final  attitude  in  respect 
to  the  Eucharist  is  too  remarkable  to  be  passed  over. 
Deference  to  the  Schoolmen  induced  him  to  devise  a 
theory  of  the  Real  Presence,  based,  like  transubstanti- 
ation itself,  on  dialectics.  The  new  dogma,  "  consub- 
stantiation,"  was  founded  on  the  axioms  of  Luther's 
favourite  Schoolman,  Ockham,  with  respect  to  matter 
and  space.  The  dialectics  of  consubstantiation  were 
presented  by  Luther  thus  : — Matter  can  be  present  in 
two  ways,  as  occupying  distinct  space,  or  as  sharing 
space  with  something  else.  Christ's  body,  as  ubiquitous, 
is  present  everywhere  in  the  latter  sense.  Therefore 
it  is  in  the  bread  and  wine  naturally,  and  is  not 
introduced  by  any  sacerdotal  act.  Its  special  grace  in 
the  sacrament  is  a  continual  fulfilment  of  a  Divine 
promise. 

Lutheranism    spread    quickly   through    Germany. 
Its  first  princely  patron  was  Frederic  the 

*■  "^    ^  Progress  of 

Elector  of  Saxony.  From  1525  onwards  Lutheranism. 
it  was  supported  by  John,  his  brother  and 
successor,  and  Philip  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse.  But 
the  Duke  of  Saxony  opposed  the  new  theology,  and 
Dresden  itself  did  not  embrace  it  till  1539.  Leo  X. 
appealed  after  the  burning  of  the  bull,  to  the  Emperor 
Charles  Y.,  and  the  recent  efforts  to  make  the  Papacy 
a  consolidated  secular  powder  now  stood  it  in  good 
stead.  Charles,  despite  the  vast  range  of  his 
dominions,  needed  the  Papal  alliance  to  resist  French 
encroachment  in  Italy.  He  acceeded  to  the  Pope's 
demand  for  the  convocation  of  the  Diet  at  Worms, 
Jan.,  1521,  and  here  Luther  appeared,  protected  by  a 


112     MANUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

safe-conduct,  to  argue  that  he  ought  not  to  recant 
anything  but  what  was  proved  heretical  by  Scripture. 
The  princes  were  induced  by  the  Papal  nuncio  to 
proclaim  him  a  heretic  and  an  outcast  from  the 
Church,  and  to  order  the  extermination  of  his 
writings.  Luther  was  allowed  to  leave  the  Council, 
but  his  life  was  in  imminent  peril.  Suddenly  he 
disappears  from  the  world.  Confined  by  friendly 
hands  in  a  secluded  castle  on  the  Wartburg,  he  spends 
the  next  year  in  producing  his  celebrated  transla- 
tion of  the  New  Testament.  Its  close  witnessed  the 
death  of  Leo  X. 

The  next  Pope  was  a  reformer  himself.     He  was 

Hadrian  VI.    ^  Netherlander,  and  had  been  professor 
cJX°S     at  Louvain  and  tutor  to  Charles  Y.     Had 

Clement  vn.  Hadrian  VI.  lived  longer,  his  influence 
might  have  effected  some  sort  of  concordat  with  the 
new  theology.  As  it  was,  his  short  pontificate  was 
marked  by  attempts  to  amend  the  Papal  court.  He 
tried,  but  tried  in  vain,  to  banish  "  the  many 
abominable  things"  which  had  ''found  place  beside 
the  holy  chair."  Hadrian  was  succeeded  in  1522 
by  a  Pope  of  the  Medici  family,  Clement  VII.  He 
listened  to  Rome's  clamour  against  Spanish  encroach- 
ment in  Italy,  and  by  making  the  Emperor  his  enemy 
greatly  benefited  the  cause  of  the  new  religion. 
Clement's  attempt  to  combine  Pome,  Milan,  Venice, 
and  Switzerland  against  the  Emperor  proved  a 
disastrous  failure.  An  imperialist  army,  composed 
largely  of  Lutherans,  entered  Pome,  wrought  fearful 
havoc,  and  secured  booty  of  inestimable  value,  1527. 
A  little  later  Clement  negotiated  with  the  Emperor, 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY.  113 

and  concluded  the  treaty  of  Barcelona  by  which 
Charles  was  pledged  to  oppose  Protestantism.  But 
the  Emperor's  refusal  to  sanction  persecution  until  a 
General  Council  should  meet,  again  alienated  the 
versatile  pontiff.  He  cemented  an  alliance  with 
Francis  I.,  who  was  now  bent  on  restoring  the 
Protestant  Duke  of  Wirtemberg,  recently  dispossessed 
by  Charles'  brother,  Ferdinand  of  Austria.  The 
war  ensuing  drove  Ferdinand  to  accept  the  peace 
of  Kadan,  1533,  and  abandon  Wirtemberg,  whicli 
thereupon  formally  embraced  Protestantism.  Other 
provinces  imitated  her.  "  Within  a  few  years," 
says  Ranke,  "  the  Reformation  extended  through  the 
whole  of  Lower  Germany,  and  permanently  esta- 
blished its  seat  in  Upper  Germany.  And  the 
enterprise  that  had  conducted  to  all  this  was  entered 
on  with  the  knowledge,  perhaps  even  with  the 
approbation,  of  Clement  himself." 

We  revert  to  the  internal  history  of  Lutheranism. 
During  Luther's  retirement  the  new  xJitra-Protes- 
theology  was  carried  by  the  ultra-reform-  xSe^ii^fonners 
ing  section  in  a  new  direction.  Luther,  ^  disrepute, 
as  holding  the  doctrine  of  consubstantiation,  had 
retained  the  decent  accessories  of  Christian  ritual, 
while  discarding  the  fantastic  mummeries  of  mediaeval 
formalism.  But  Carlstadt  now  came  forward  with 
projects  for  abolishing  ceremonial  of  every  kind.  In 
Misnia  the  Anabaptists,  under  Claus  Storch  and 
Thomas  Miinzer,  were  proclaiming  the  faithful  to  be 
exempt  from  human  legislation.  Luther  re-appeared 
at  Wittenberg  in  1522,  silenced  Carlstadt,  and 
strongly    denounced    the    Anabaptists.        But     the 

8 


114     MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

revolutionary  spirit  was  not  to  be  thus  suppressed. 
The  Peasants'  Insurrection  in  the  Black  Forest,  1524, 
was  mainly  directed  against  aristocratic  oppression, 
and  Luther  cannot  be  held  accountable  for  its  oc- 
currence, or  for  its  sanguinary  suppression.  But 
in  many  quarters  the  new  teaching  had  roused  sects 
of  fanatics  who  clamoured  for  the  slaughter  of  un- 
believers, and  the  foundation  of  a  kingdom  of  the 
faithful  on  a  basis  of  socialism.  In  Holland  this 
parody  of  Reformation  was  to  culminate  in  the 
celebrated  reign  of  John  Bockhold  at  Leyden,  who 
styled  himself  "King  of  Sion,"  and  persecuted  all 
who  did  not  disavow  their  baptism,  1535.  Luther 
was  the  sternest  foe  of  the  Anabaptist  section,  but 
a  reaction  from  Lutheranism  necessarily  follow^ed 
the  rise  of  the  fanatics.  Among  the  seceders  was 
Erasmus.  This  remarkable  man  had  preceded  Luther 
in  assaults  on  the  scholastic  system.  The  "  Praise  of 
Folly,"  the  "Paraphrases,"  the  "Greek  Testament," 
were  each  important  contributions  to  that  new 
learning  which  we  noticed  as  dawning  at  the  close 
of  the  preceding  century.  It  was  at  his  instance 
that  the  Elector  Fredeiic  had  favoured  Luther's 
cause.  But  it  was  as  a  scholar  rather  than  a  man 
of  i-eligion  that  Erasmus  impugned  mediaeval  error 
and  contrasted  the  Apostles  and  Greek  Fathers  with 
the  pedantic  luminaries  of  the  schools.  With  the 
spiritual  side  of  the  Reformation  he  had  little 
sympathy.  Alienated  by  the  outbreaks  of  fanaticism, 
he  poses  from  1524  onwards  as  Luther's  foe.  The 
two  were  soon  engaged  in  an  acrimonious  controversy 
on  the  doctrine  of  predestination. 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY.  115 

It  soon  became  plain  that  the  new  theology  would 
have  little  hold  in  Austria,  South  Ger-  The  rival 
many  and  Bavaria,  though  even  in  these  ^^^S'lpu-e?'^* 
parts  there  was  a  loud  outcry  against  Papal  stS^o/the 
abuses.  The  champions  of  the  old  religion  c'^nfessSm  of 
met  at  E,atisbon  to  organise  a  league  Augsburg, 
against  Lutheranism.  Philip  of  Hesse,  John  of  Saxony, 
and  other  reforming  princes  retorted  by  establishing 
the  rival  League  of  Torgau,  1526.  Already  Charles  had 
inaugurated  his  policy  of  persecution  by  the  holocaust 
of  four  reforming  monks  at  Antwerp.  Fortunate  for 
the  Reformers  was  the  maladroit  policy  of  Clement 
YIL,  which  at  this  moment  was  arraying  the  Papal 
troops  against  the  Empire.  To  revive  zeal  for  the 
Papacy  under  such  circumstance  w^as  impossible.  The 
Diet  of  Spires,  convened  under  Ferdinand  of  Austria 
in  1526,  itself  advocated  considerable  reforms, — the 
full  communion,  clerical  marriage,  vernacular  ser- 
vices, the  abolition  of  private  masses.  Above  all  it 
accepted  the  great  principle  that  each  state  should 
decide  the  conduct  of  its  own  religious  affairs.  Charles, 
despite  his  strong  attachment  to  the  old  system,  was 
forced  to  sanction  this  arrangement.  The  Lutherans 
thus  secured  a  legal  existence,  but  the  religious  unity 
of  the  German  States  was  for  ever  lost.  Yainly  did 
Charles  and  Ferdinand  retrace  their  steps  and  convene 
the  second  Diet  of  Spires  in  1529,  to  repeal  the  pacific 
edict  of  its  predecessor.  The  Reforming  princes  and 
municipalities  drew  up  a  document  protesting  that  the 
revocation  was  an  outrage  to  conscience  and  to  law. 
This  incident  attached  to  the  Lutherans  the  name 
"  Protestants,"  which  we  shall  henceforth  use  in  its 


116     MANUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

modern  wider  application.  In  1520  was  issued  the 
noted  ''  Confession  of  Augsburg,"  prepared  chiefly  by 
Melancthon.  In  this  document  there  were  twenty- 
one  dogmatic  articles,  and  seven  of  negative  charac- 
ter. The  latter  impugned  clerical  celibacy,  sacrificial 
masses,  auricular  confession,  ceremonial  feasts  and 
fasts,  the  practice  of  monastic  vows,  and  the  secular 
jurisdiction  of  bishops.  It  was  signed  by  John 
Elector  of  Saxony,  the  princes  of  Brandenburg,  Lune- 
burg,  Hesse,  and  Anhalt,  and  the  delegates  of  several 
towns.  This  Augsburg  Confession  and  Luther's  shorter 
Catechism  became  the  characteristic  symbols  of  the 
Lutheran  body,  which  in  respect  to  other  points  was 
soon  much  di\dded.  The  issue  of  the  Confession 
greatly  irritated  the  Romanists,  and  the  Lutheran 
princes  in  self-defence  proceeded  to  form  the  League 
of  Smalcald.  War  would  have  probably  ensued  had 
not  the  Ottoman  inroads  in  Hungary  impelled  Charles 
to  a  policy  of  conciliation.  By  the  Peace  of  Nuremberg, 
1532,  the  existing  religious  status  was  to  continue  till 
a  General  Council  should  pronounce  sentence. 

We  must  now  describe  the  Reforming  movement  in 
The  Swiss  Re-  Switzerland,  desti^d  to  develop  a  system- 

Zwingie.  atic  theology  as  influential  as  Lutheranism 
itself.  The  author  of  the  Reformation  in  the  German 
cantons  was  Ulric  Zwingle,  a  priest  of  scholarly  pro- 
clivities, and  an  admirer  of  Erasmus.  Zwingle  studied 
the  Greek  Testament,  imbibed  Erasmus'  critical  prin- 
ciples, and  was  impelled  in  the  same  direction  as 
Luther.  The  spiritual  intuitions  of  the  Wittenberg 
Reformer  were  in  the  preacher  of  Zurich  supple- 
mented by  a  large  reliance  on  the  reasoning  faculties. 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY,  117 

Like  Luther,  however,  Zwingle  proclaimed  that  re- 
ligion must  be  constituted  on  the  basis  of  Scripture. 
The  hostihty  of  the  Bishop  of  Constance  soon  con- 
vinced him  that  reform  must  involve  severance  from 
the  Church.  A  distinct  religious  body  was  therefore 
formed,  and  was  soon  joined  by  the  large  majority  of 
the  canton,  1523.  Basle  shortly  followed  Zurich  ;  so 
too  Berne;  the  one  stirred  by  QEcolampadius,  the 
other  by  Meyer  and  Haller. 

Despite  its  condemnation  at  a  conference  at  Baden, 
1526,  the  Zwinglian  religion  spread  fast      Zwingie 

<_>  J.  ^  disparages 

through  Switzerland.  The  cantons  in  Sacraments, 
which  it  was  resisted  sought  the  aid  of  Austria.  War 
ensued,  and  among  the  slain  on  the  bloody  field  of 
Cappel,  1531,  was  Zwingle  himself.  His  theology  had 
been  systematized  in  his  "  Commentary  on  True  and 
False  religion."  Its  leading  expositors  were  hence- 
forth Bullinger  and  Myconius.  We  proceed  to  analyse 
its  character.  To  the  Zwinglian  the  most  repulsive 
feature  in  mediaeval  religion  was  the  mechanical  use  of 
the  Mass.  His  revolt  from  this  formalism  carried 
Zwingle  so  far  that  he  lowered  the  Eucharist  to  the  level 
of  a  commemorative  rite,  and  denied  the  special  grace 
of  baptism.  Disparaging  all  external  agencies,  Zwingle 
taught  that  Divine  grace  is  always  given  "immedi- 
ately" or  without  sacramental  intervention.  Here 
then  the  Zurichers  widely  diverged  from  the  path  of 
the  men  of  Wittenberg,  who  albeit  making  faith  a 
condition,  attached  an  inherent  grace  to  both  sacra- 
ments. The  colloquy  of  Luther  and  Zwingle  at 
Marburg  only  emphasised  the  difference.  Some  vague 
concessions   to   the   higher    view    were   made   after 


118     MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

Zwingle's  death,  in  the  Confession  of  Basle  and  the 
First  Helvetic  Confession.  But  the  difference  between 
the  two  systems  remained  too  great  for  any  hearty 
co-operation  of  the  Lutherans  and  Zwinglians. 

But  the  Zwinghan  is  not  the  most  noted  form  of 
Calvin— His  ^^^  Swiss  Bcformation.  Zwingle's  fame 
etciSw  was  destined  to  be  eclipsed  by  the  larger 
organization,  talents  of  Calvin,  who  supplied  to  Protes- 
tantism what  neither  Zwingle  nor  Luther  could  con- 
tribute— a  distinct  ecclesiastical  organization.  Calvin 
had  headed  the  Reformers  in  France.  He  fled  to 
Basle  from  the  sanguinary  persecutions  of  1534,  and 
here  composed  the  celebrated  "  Institutiones  Christianse 
religionis,"  1536.  From  Basle  he  carried  the  tyranny 
of  a  Protestant  popedom  to  Geneva,  which  refused  sub- 
mission, and  expelled  him  in  1538.  But  circumstances 
necessitating  the  adoption  of  an  organic  system,  the 
Genevese  turned  in  1541  to  Strasburg,  where  Calvin 
was  editing  his  Commentaries,  and  the  great  French- 
man drove  his  own  terms.  Henceforth,  till  his  death 
in  1564,  he  and  his  consistory  exercised  a  despotic 
rule  at  Geneva.  The  organization  of  Calvin  became 
the  model  for  the  Eeformed  Churches  of  France, 
Scotland,  and  the  Netherlands.  His  peculiar  theology 
accompanied  or  outran  it,  and  more  than  once  nearly 
found  expression  in  the  formularies  of  the  English 
Church.  The  most  starthng  feature  in  Calvinism  was 
a  rigorous  dogma  of  predestination  which  restricted 
all  possible  religious  benefits  to  one  limited  class  of 
Christians.  To  these — "  the  elect  " — the  sacraments 
brought  benefits  of  a  kind  unrecognised  by  Zwingle. 
Baptism  is  ''obsignatory "  of   the   blessings  already 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY.  119 

theirs  by  Divine  decree.  They  "  virtually  "  and  "  in 
effect "  receive  Christ's  Presence  in  the  Eucharist.  To 
others  sacraments  are  unavailing.  Scarcely  less  strik- 
ing were  Calvin's  claims  in  regard  to  the  relations  of 
Church  and  State.  To  the  Church,  with  this  happy 
minority  of  "  elect,"  the  State  is  to  submit,  as  to  a 
theocracy.  The  State  only  exists  to  enforce  "  the 
discipline  of  manners  "  desired  by  the  Church.  Popes 
from  Gregory  VII.  to  Gregory  IX.  had  expressed  a 
similar  theory  but  had  centred  the  Church's  claims  in 
an  individual — the  Pontiff.  But  Calvin's  system  was, 
in  theory  at  least,  attractively  democratic,  "his 
venerable  compagnie"  who  represent  the  power  of  the 
Church,  being  mostly  lay  "elders"  (" ancieris")  elected 
by  congregations.  The  only  permanent  clerical  orders 
are  "  doctors "  (i.e.  theologians)  and  "pastors."  The 
latter  are  to  be  appointed  with  the  approval  of  the 
congi^egations.  It  will  be  impossible  here  to  depict  in 
detail  the  primitive  Genevan  organization,  still  less 
the  peculiar  modifications  of  Calvin's  system  in  various 
countries.  Two  great  principles  always  marked  the 
Calvinistic  Churches,  and  were  fought  for  as  if  the 
essentials  of  Christianity.  (1)  Severance  from  State 
control  in  religious  matters — the  future  history  of  Scot- 
land shows  the  importance  attached  to  this  principle. 
(2)  Government  by  bodies  instead  of  individuals — the 
local  presbytery  which  is  the  unit  of  authority,  expand- 
ing by  a  system  of  delegation  into  higher  bodies — the 
"  provincial  synod,"  and  the  "  general  "  or  "  national 
assembly."  Theoretically  democratic,  the  Presbyterian 
system  evolves  frequently  that  type  of  oligarchical 
tyranny,  the  close  corporation.     This,  too,  is  exempli- 


120     MANUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

fied  in  Scotland,  and  partly  explains  the  hostility  of 
the  Independents  to  the  Kirk. 

In  1549  Calvin  effected  a  concordat  with  the 
Calvin's  reia-  Zwinglians,  which  consolidated  the  Swiss 
zi?Sigui?sSfd  Reformation,  and  capacitated  the  French 
Lutherans,  ^^j^^j  German  cantons  for  united  action. 
With  the  Lutherans  his  relations  were  less  harmo- 
nious. The  outbreak  of  a  Eucharistic  controversy  in 
1552  resulted  in  an  alienation  which  was  greatly 
embittered  after  Calvin's  death,  and  gave  emphasis 
to  other  doctrinal  differences.  The  feud  was  specially 
bitter  in  the  Palatinate,  alternately  ruled  by  Lutheran 
and  Calvinistic  Electors  from  1556  onwards.  The 
doctrines  of  moderate  Calvinism  found  expression 
in  the  Palatine  Catechism  of  1560.  Those  of  Luther- 
anism  were  circulated  in  the  Formula  Concordise  of 
1577.  The  animosity  outlived  this  century,  and  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  found  Lutherans  and  Calvinists 
unable  to  unite  against  their  common  foe.  Before 
quitting  this  subject,  we  notice  that  Cahdn's  mantle 
fell  upon  Theodore  Beza,  a  Frenchman  of  kindred 
spirit,  and  that  under  both  regimes  Geneva  was  the 
asylum  of  refugee  Protestants  from  all  lands  oppressed 
by  the  Inquisition.  But  Calvin's  death  was  the  cul- 
minating point  of  the  Swiss  Kef ormation.  The  Catholic 
reaction,  due  to  the  exertions  of  the  Jesuits,  affected 
almost  every  canton  of  the  Helvetic  confederation. 
The  saintly  Carlo  Borromeo  secured  for  the  Jesuit 
institutions  a  firm  footing  in  Switzerland,  1569-84, 
and  in  1586  the  Swiss  Eomanists  formed  the  con- 
federation called  the  *'  Golden  League." 

Already  (1530)  the  new  theology  was  confronted 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY.  121 

with  this  "counter-reformation."     The  old  monastic 
Orders, — the    Benedictines,    Dominicans, 

.  .  The  counter- 

and  Franciscans — were   underofoinff   pur-   reformation. 

^x.       n  r^  1       r^  ^    P^^  III'  and 

gation,    the    Carmehtes    were    about    to  the  Colloquy 

accept  the  rule  of  St.  Theresa.    Many  new 

societies — above  all  the  Order  of  Jesuits — were  to  rise 

in  the  cause  of  the  old    religion.     But  the  earliest 

indication  of  this  counter-reformation  was  at    Rome 

itself,   where  there  had    been   founded,  cir.   1523,   a 

society  of   devout  Catholics   called  the   "  Oratory  of 

Divine    Love."      Its    adherents,    while    clinging    to 

mediaeval  organization,  attached  to  the  principle   of 

justification  by  faith  the  same  importance  as  Luther. 

They  were  headed  by  men  who  afterwards   attained 

the   rank   of   cardinal — Contarini,   Sadoleti,   Giberto, 

Caraffa,  and  the  English  refugee  Reginald  Pole.    This 

evangelical   Catholicism  was  favoured  at  Modena  by 

the  Cardinal  Archbishop  Morone,  and  at  Naples  by 

the  Spanish  secretary  Juan  de  Valdez,  who  afterwards 

vainly   attempted   to   reform  the    Church    of    Spain. 

From   this   party  emanated    (cir.    1540)  the  treatise 

"  Beneficio  di  Christo,"  which  roused   the   suspicions 

of   the  reactionists,  and  was   doomed  to  destruction 

by  the  Inquisitors.     On  the   accession   of   Paul  III. 

(Alexander  Farnese),  1534,  it  seemed  likely  that  these 

Italian  reformers  would  secure   a   purgation  of   the 

Church   by    Papal   authority,    yet    on    the    lines    of 

Luther.       Paul    himself    was    mainly    prompted    by 

diplomatic  considerations,  and  anxiety  to  stand  well 

with  all  parties.    He  promoted  the  evangelical  divines 

to  the  cardinalate,  and  heard  their  discourses  on  the 

abuse  of  Papal  authority.     He  appointed  commissions 


122      MANUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

to  reform  the  Apostolic  Chamber,  the  Chancery,  and 
Penitentiaria,  and  readily  pushed  the  Emperor's  pro- 
ject for  composing  religious  differences  in  a  Council. 
At  a  Colloquy  at  Katisbon,  1541,  the  two  religions 
met,  the  one  headed  by  Contarini  the  Papal  legate, 
the  other  by  Melancthon.  Each  party  was  anxious 
for  reunion.  On  four  primary  articles — depravity  of 
human  nature,  original  sin,  redemption,  and  (strange 
to  say)  justification — they  proved  to  be  at  accord. 
But  the  negotiations  were  viewed  with  dislike  both  by 
Luther  and  by  the  reactionary  Catholics.  Francis  I., 
too,  had  no  desire  to  see  the  religious  differences  of 
the  German  Empire  ended.  It  was  probably  at  his 
instigation  that  Paul  at  last  rejected  the  Articles  of 
Katisbon,  as  affronting  Catholicism  by  their  ambiguity. 
Never  again  were  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  systems 
so  near  a  reconciliation. 

The  fortunes  of  Lutheranism  for  a  time  (1545 — 
1552)  rapidly  ebbed.     Charles'  need  of  the 

The  Lutherans  ^       ^  '        ^       '' .  ,  ,  , 

weakened.  Lutheran  prmces  ceased  at  the  close  of 
the  French  war,  1544.  He  arrayed  him- 
self against  Protestantism,  and  was  at  once  joined 
by  the  perfidious  Maurice  of  Saxony.  Shortly  after 
Luther's  death  in  1546,  North  Germany  lay  at  the 
Emperor's  feet  renouncing  the  League  of  Smalcald. 
Maurice  was  rewarded  with  the  throne  of  John  the 
Elector  of  Saxony.  The  Council  of  Trent  had  begun 
its  attack  on  the  new  theology.  A  Diet  at  Augsburg, 
1548,  bade  the  Protestants  accept  the  reactionary 
Interim^  a  rule  which  ceded  only  clerical  marriage  and 
full  communion.  The  Interim,  though  balanced  by 
a  Formula  Reformationis  prescribed   to   the  Poman 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY,  123 

party,  naturally  roused  among  the  stricter  Lutherans 
a  violent  opposition.  Modified  however  by  Maurice, 
who  was  still  a  Protestant  at  heart,  it  was  accepted 
by  Melancthon,  whose  conformity  provoked  the  "  Adia- 
phonistic"  controversy  as  to  the  limit  of  things  essential. 
The  Council  of  Trent  (the  twentieth  General  Council 
of  Roman  computation)  ranges  over  the 

-  „  .  _     _  .  ^__  in  .  .  Council  of 

years  154b-b4.  We  shall  notice  its  Trent  under 
procedure  as  we  treat  of  the  successive 
pontiffs.  Under  Paul  III.  it  sat  for  a  year  only. 
Its  bias  was  shown  by  its  first  and  hasty  edict,  that 
not  only  the  apocryphal  books  but  the  unwritten 
traditions  of  the  Church  had  full  claim  to  inspired 
authority.  Passing  to  the  mysterious  doctrines  of 
original  sin  and  justification,  the  Council  repudiated 
the  new  theology  by  ruling  that  original  sin  is 
extirpated  by  baptism,  and  that  faith  only  justifies 
when  conjoined  with  love.  The  imputed  righteous- 
ness of  Christ  is  efficacious  only  when  productive  of 
personal  righteousness.  The  reactionist  party  quashed 
all  attempts  to  deal  with  the  iniquities  of  the  Papacy, 
but  some  decrees  were  passed  condemning  episcopal 
pluralities  and  other  abuses  of  ecclesiastical  admini- 
stration. Charles's  successes  in  the  field  now  seemingly 
ofiered  an  opportunity  for  a  more  sweeping  attack  on 
the  Lutherans.  But  by  Paul  as  by  his  predecessor 
the  ascendancy  of  the  Emperor  in  religious  matters 
was  more  dreaded  than  the  new  theology.  He  leagued 
closely  with  France,  and  with  the  view  of  weakening 
the  imperial  influence  transferred  the  Council  to 
Bologna,  where  it  was  practically  suspended  till 
1551.      Soon   the   Pope   and   Emperor  were    bitter 


124     MANUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

foes.  The  Pope's  son  was  assassinated  by  agents  of 
the  imperial  faction,  and  Paul  continually  endeavoured 
to  thwart  the  imperial  interests. 

To  this  pontificate  belongs  the  foundation  of  the 
The  Jesuits—  J^suit  Society,  1540.  Ignatius  Loyola, 
their  success.  ^  Spanish  soldier  of  good  birth,  turned 
to  religion  by  illness  consequent  on  his  wounds,  had 
conceived  the  idea  of  a  spiritual  knighthood,  that 
should  sacrifice  all  for  Christ  in  such  service  as  the 
Pope  should  enjoin.  Ignatius  was  joined  by  Faber 
a  Savoyard,  Francois  Xavier  of  Navarre,  and  for 
a  while  by  Caraffa,  the  founder  of  the  Theatines,  a 
fraternity  resembling  the  13th  century  friars.  As 
sanctioned  in  1540,  the  Society  was  restricted  to 
sixty  members.  But  Paul  removed  this  limitation 
by  another  bull  in  1543.  Eventually  the  special 
work  selected  for  the  Jesuits  was  to  do  battle  against 
the  new  theology  by  propagating  whatever  the  Pope 
should  think  fit.  For  this  purpose  it  was  decided 
to  secure  everywhere  the  superintendence  of  confes- 
sionals and  educational  establishments.  The  Society 
was  characterised  by  freedom  from  the  mechanical  aus- 
terities and  routines  of  worship  usual  in  religious 
fraternities,  and  by  an  absolute  submission  of  fortune, 
reason,  and  conscience  to  the  authority  of  the  General. 
Its  official  grades  were  eventually  four — noviciates, 
coadjutors,  professors  of  three,  and  professors  of  four 
vows.  Of  these  the  class  of  coadjutors  proved  the 
most  influential,  being  composed  of  learned  priests 
expressly  trained  for  educational  work.  When 
Ignatius,  its  first  general,  died  in  1556,  the  Jesuit 
Society  had  a  footing  in  thirteen  different  provinces, 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY,  125 

but  this  rate  of  progress  was  soon  far  surpassed, 
Its  schools  and  colleges  became  noted  in  every 
country,  and  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  century  it 
menaces  the  new  theology  with  extinction.  In 
Bavaria,  the  Tyrol,  parts  of  Franconia  and  Swabia, 
southern  Austria,  and  the  Rhenish  provinces,  the 
Jesuits  completely  turned  the  tide  of  Reformation ; 
in  Switzerland  and  the  Netherlands  they  stemmed  its 
advance;  in  every  other  land  they  claimed  some 
measure  of  success.  In  1586  we  find  62,000  souls 
recovered  to  the  old  faith  in  a  single  district  of 
Germany.  Abroad,  Xavier  and  other  missionaries 
carried  Roman  Christianity  to  the  extremities  of  the 
known  world.  Julius  III.,  Pius  Y.  and  Gregory  XIII. 
enlarged  the  privileges  of  the  Society.  It  will  be 
frequently  noticed  hereafter  in  conflict  with  the 
European  governments,  irritated  by  those  hateful 
moral  principles  which  have  become  proverbial  as 
the  characteristics  of  Jesuitism. 

The  traitor  Maurice  still  yearned  to  be  the  head 
of   the  Protestant  princes.     He  leagued 

•   1        -TT  T-r  ^^®*  °^ 

against    the    Emperor   with    Henry   II.     Augsburg. 

.  .         Religious 

of  France,  and  so  artfully  veiled  his  toleration 
projects  that  he  nearly  succeeded  in 
capturing  Charles  himself  at  Innspruck,  1552.  The 
Protestants  now  rose  throughout  Germany,  and  their 
cause  was  favoured  by  a  fresh  irruption  of  the  Turks. 
Charles  was  compelled  to  accept  the  Treaty  of  Passau, 
and  its  terms  were  fully  confirmed  by  the  Diet 
opened  by  his  brother  Ferdinand  at  Augsburg,  1555. 
The  Diet  gave  every  landed  proprietor  liberty  to 
choose   between  the  old   religion  and  the  Augsburg 


126      MANUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

Confession.  A  modus  vivendi  on  principles  of  mutual 
toleiution  was  thus  established,  and  outward  hostilities 
between  the  two  religions  of  the  Empire  ceased  for 
the  rest  of  the  century.  Charles,  disgusted  with  his 
failure,  retired  to  a  convent  in  Estremadura,  1556, 
transferring  the  Empire  to  Ferdinand  and  the  Spanish 
dominions  to  Philip  II.  The  Emperors  Ferdinand, 
and  Maximilian  II.,  1564,  were  not  on  friendly  terms 
with  the  Papacy.  Hudolf  II.,  1576,  however,  who 
had  been  educated  by  the  Jesuits,  gave  active  support 
to  these  devoted  servants  of  Pome,  and  much  assisted 
the  reactionary  movement. 

Julius  III.,    1550-5,    had  been    employed   by  his 
predecessor  as  chief  legate  at  Trent.     He 

Council  of       ^  ,  1 .    ,      1     1        ^  .,      1 

Trent  under  re-established  the  Council  there,  m  spite 
of  angry  protests  from  the  King  of  France, 
and  the  first  subject  of  consideration  was  the  Eucharist, 
Oct.,  1551.  The  Council  endorsed  the  dogma  of 
transubstantiation,  and  declared  the  highest  form  of 
worship  to  be  due  to  the  consecrated  elements.  The 
Lutheran,  Calvinistic,  Zwinglian,  and  other  views 
of  the  subject  were  all  anathematised.  Penance 
(or  rather  absolution  consequent  on  penance)  was 
defined  as  a  sacrament,  so  too  extreme  unction, 
with  the  usual  accompaniment  of  anathemas.  Certain 
Lutheran  envoys  from  Saxony  and  Wirtemberg  were 
given  a  hearing  towards  the  close  of  these  sessions, 
which  were  suddenly  interrupted  by  Maurice's  march 
against  the  Emperor,  April,  1552.  The  Council  did 
not  meet  again  till  1562. 

The  twenty-two  days  pontificate  of  Marcellus  II. 
need  not  be  noticed.     The  next  Pope  was  Caraflfa,  the 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY.  127 

founder  of  the  Theatines,  and  one  of  the  counter -refor- 
mation party.  He  was  yet  more  con- 
spicuous as  having  secured,  in  1 542,  the  bull  anti-imperial 
establishing  a  universal  Inquisition,  whose 
six  chief  officers  were  to  persecute  suspected  heretics  "  in 
all  Christian  nations  whatsoever."  Despite  his  great 
talents  and  religious  zeal,  CarafFa,  as  Paul  IV.  (1555), 
did  not  much  advance  the  spiritual  interests  of  the 
Church.  Impelled  by  hatred  of  the  empire  and  the 
Spanish  ascendancy,  he  took  an  active  part  in  the 
French  war,  was  defended  by  Protestant  foices  against 
the  imperialists,  and  after  the  defeat  of  the  French  at 
St.  Quentin,  was  compelled  to  capitulate  to  Alva.  He 
effected  a  conscientious  purgation  of  the  Roman  court, 
but  he  spurned  the  idea  of  submitting  ecclesiastical 
reforms  to  a  General  Council. 

Pius  lY.,  1559,  was  of  more  pacific  disposition, 
and  conviction  as  well  as  policy  induced  piusiv. 
him  to  re-open  the  sessions  at  Trent,  1562.  ^^s^/co'iScn 
Safe  conducts  were  offered  to  the  Re-  o^  Trent, 
forming  Churches,  but  the  Council  had  long  lost  all 
claim  to  respect  as  an  impartial  tribunal.  England 
joined  in  repudiating  it  as  neither  "  holy,"  "  free," 
nor  "  general."  An  attempt  of  the  Spanish  repre- 
sentatives to  assert  the  divine  origin  of  episcopacy, 
and  its  consequent  independence  of  Papal  authority, 
was  stifled  by  Pius'  diplomacy.  A  warm  discussion 
as  to  the  propriety  of  administering  the  Eucharist  in 
both  kinds  also  ended  fruitlessly.  A  decree  confirmed 
the  mediaeval  doctiine  of  sacrificial  masses,  beneficial 
to  the  departed  as  well  as  to  the  living.  The  reality 
of   a  visible   hierarchy  with  indelible   characteristics 


128     MANUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

was  asserted.  Matrimony  was  declared  a  sacrament 
on  the  authority  of  "universal  tradition."  The 
existence  of  purgatory,  the  advantage  of  invoking 
saints,  the  propriety  of  worshipping  images  and  relics, 
and  the  utility  of  the  indulgence  system  were  also 
affirmed.  The  Council  then  closed,  Jan.,  1564,  leaving 
untouched  the  question  uppermost  in  all  minds — the 
extent  of  the  Pope's  authority.  Of  the  255  members 
who  attested  its  official  acts,  187  were  Italians.  They 
were  also  confirmed  by  a  Papal  instrument  reserving 
to  the  Pope  the  privilege  of  expounding  them.  It 
must  be  noticed  that  this  Council  did  not  receive  the 
full  recognition  of  the  GalUcan  Church. 

The  Council  of  Trent  had  the  general  effect  of 
Subsequent  Strengthening  the  authority  of  the  Pope, 
^Roman^  increasing  the  severity  of  Church  disci- 
CathoUcism.  pjij^e,  and  diminishing  such  abuses  as 
clerical  concubinage,  non-residence,  and  pluralities. 
But  that  these  results  were  permanently  secured,  was 
due  chiefly  to  the  indefatigable  Society  of  Jesus.  In 
reinvesting  their  Papal  patron  with  absolute  supre- 
macy the  sagacious  Jesuits  declined  the  ancient 
analogy  between  the  Papal  and  imperial  jurisdiction. 
Their  policy  was  rather  to  impugn  the  Divine  Hights 
of  Sovereigns.  "  The  progress  of  democracy  was 
stimulated  under  the  very  shadow  of  the  Papal 
monarchy  and  by  its  boldest  champions,  in  order  that 
the  civil  power  might  be  more  readily  subordinated  to 
the  spiritual."  The  pontificates  of  the  four  succeeding 
Popes  may  be  cursorily  noticed.  Pius  V.  (1566)  was 
a  severe  reformer  and  a  promoter  of  Papal  absolutism. 
His  piety  and  zeal  gave  him  wide  influence,  and  he 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY.  1^ 

was  the  author  of  the  league  against  the  Turks, 
which  effected  the  great  victory  of  Lepanto.  He  was 
canonised  after  his  death.  Gregory  XIII.  (1572)  was 
a  munificent  patron  of  the  Jesuits,  and  founded  the 
great  Seminary  at  Kome,  He  forwarded  the  anti- 
English  policy  of  Spain  which  produced  the  great 
enterprise  of  the  Armada,  and  he  was  the  backbone 
of  the  League  of  the  Guises  in  France.  By 
Sixtus  Y.  (1585)  the  ancient  abuse  of  nepotism  was 
limited  within  lines  which  after  times  accepted  as 
fixed.  The  later  policy  of  this  Pope  was  much 
influenced  by  jealousy  of  the  predominance  of  Spain. 
Clement  YIII.  (1592)  is  memorable  for  relinquishing 
the  cause  of  the  League  in  France  and  pronouncing 
the  absolution  of  Henry  IV.  This  Pope  superseded 
the  ducal  government  in  Ferrara  by  that  of  the  Papal 
States.  He  was  conspicuous  as  the  negotiator  of  the 
peace  concluded  between  France  and  Spain  in  1598. 

A  few  words   must   be  added    to    our  account  of 
Lutheranism.      Luther  was  no  organizer, 

.  .  Intestine 

and  the  religion  which  he  bequeathed  to    feuds  of  the 

.  Lutherans. 

Germany  was  lacking  m  that  completeness 
and  logical  precision  which  commend  the  gloomier 
system  of  Calvin.  Intestine  controversies  were  the 
consequence,  bitter  as  those  conducted  against  either 
Home  or  Geneva.  Four  great  subjects  of  dispute 
are  recorded.  (1)  SoliJicUanism :  Luther's  frequent 
disparagement  of  the  ''law,"  as  opposed  to  the 
Gospel,  had  encouraged  the  antinomian  tendency 
already  noticed.  A  controversy  as  to  the  relations 
of  faith  and  works  raged,  1537-60.  (2)  Synergy  : 
Stricter  Lutherans  made  man  an  impassive  recipient 

9 


130      iVAiYUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

of  grace,  "  no  more  able  to  co-operate  than  a  stick  or 
a  stone."     On  the  other  hand  Striegel,  Melancthon's 
follower,    maintained  that    the   human    soul  abetted 
the  Divine   Spirit  with  efforts  of  its  own.     This  con- 
troversy   covers    the   years   1550-80.      (3)    Personal 
justification  :  How  was  the  propitiation  of  Christ  to 
be  applied  to  the  individual  ?     The  mediaeval  Church 
had  answered  by  interpreting  the  Mass  as  a  repetition 
of  Christ's  death.      Osiander  (cZ.   1552)  attempted  a 
reply  which  distinguished  strictly  between  the  histori- 
cal act  of  redemption,  and  the  work  of  justification 
in  the  believer's  soul.      In  the  controversy  thus  en- 
gendered we  trace  the  origin  of  those  rival  theories 
as     to    the     range    of    Christ's    propitiatory    work, 
which    distinguish    seventeenth-century    "  Arminian- 
ism "    and    "  Calvinism."         (4)     Consuhstantiation  : 
Melancthon's  followers  were  more  inclined  to  symbolise 
with   Calvin    than  with   Luther  on  the  question    of 
Eucharistic   grace.     They  predominated    at  Witten- 
berg.    The  adherents  of  consuhstantiation  had  their 
headquarters   at   Jena.      In    1571     the    controversy 
resulted  in  a  repudiation  of  Luther's  theory  of  the 
ubiquity  of  Christ's  body  by  the  divines  of  Witten- 
berg and  Leipsic.  .   .  .  Out  of  the  turmoil  of  these 
disputes  came  the  Formula  Concordiae,   1577,  which 
owed  its  recognition  mainly  to  Augustus,  Elector  of 
Saxony.     It  was  adopted  by  Sweden  and  Hungary  in 
later  times.     But  its  conservative  tones  gave  offence, 
and  many  Churches  now  forsook    the  Lutheran   for 
the  Calvinistic  profession.     It  ended  intestine  feuds 
at  the  expense   of  the    Lutheran  numbers.     To  de- 
scribe fully  the  official  organisation  of  Lutheranism 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY.  131 

would  take  ns  beyond  the  limits  of  this  work. 
Luther's  theory  had  been  that  the  bishop  and  the 
priest  were  identical,  and  that  the  rule  of  prelates 
should  be  superseded  by  that  of  the  Christian  com- 
munities. But  the  principle  of  Spires  and  Augsburg, 
"  citjics  regio  ejus  religio,''  was  capable  of  wide  ex- 
pansion, and  practically  the  jus  'ijyiscojxde  was  given 
to  the  civil  authority.  Consequently  each  of  some 
four  hundred  petty  states  had  its  own  ecclesiastical 
organization,  dictated  by  the  whim  of  its  ruler.  A 
striking  contrast  this  to  the  Calvinistic  systems  with 
their  jealous  resentment  of  anything  like  State 
interference. 

We  now  notice  the  course  of  the  Reformation  in 
countries  outside   the    Empire.      France, 

.  ■  Conflicts  of 

as    we   have    seen,    was    stirred    by   an  Protestantism 

.      ,  .      ,  /.ill  France. 

evangelical  movement  independent  ot  Edict  of 
Luther's  and  Zwingle's.  Prominent 
among  its  leaders  were  Jacques  Lefevre  and  Bishop 
BriQonnet.  Olivetan,  the  translator  of  the  Bible 
into  French,  was  Calvin's  relation,  and  for  awhile 
the  future  dictator  of  Geneva  was  conspicuous  as  an 
object  of  the  Sorbonne's  attack.  French  Evangelicism 
was  subjected  to  fearful  persecutions,  which  are 
partly  accounted  for  by  the  intemperate  language  of 
the  Reformers  and  the  confusion  of  their  cause  wdth 
that  of  the  turbulent  Anabaptists.  The  massacre  of 
the  Reforming  Vaudois  in  Provence,  1545,  is  said  to 
have  had  four  thousand  victims.  In  1555-9  the 
French  Reformers  formally  accepted  the  Genevan 
system,  and  published,  with  Calvin's  sanction,  a 
Confession  embodied  in  forty  Articles.    The  reformed 


132     3IA.VUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

religion  was  accepted  by  Anthony  of  Bourbon,  King 
of  Navarre,  his  brother  the  Prince  de  Conde,  and 
several  of  the  nobility.  But  the  feud  of  the  Guise 
and  Bourbon  families  during  the  minority  of 
Charles  IX.  plunged  France  into  a  civil  war  of  a 
politico-religious  kind.  The  synod  at  Poissy  (1561) 
had  only  proved  the  impossibility  of  reconcihation, 
and  an  edict  of  tolerance,  promulgated  in  1562,  had 
been  violated  b}'-  the  persecuting  Duke  of  Guise. 
The  Huguenots  accordingly  took  up  arms  under 
Conde  and  Coligny.  Their  defeat  at  Dreux  was 
shortly  succeeded  by  the  Peace  of  Orleans.  Another 
edict  of  tolerance  (1563)  now  caused  a  four  years' 
lull  in  the  storm.  The  horrors  of  the  renewed 
religious  war  reached  their  climax  in  the  diabolical 
massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew's  Day,  1572,  devised  by 
the  queen-mother,  Catharine  de  Medici.  There 
perished  on  this  occasion  at  least  two  thousand 
Huguenots  in  Paris,  and  twenty  thousand  in  France 
at  large.  Henry  III.  succeeded  in  1574,  and  his 
dread  of  the  Guises  and  the  ultra- Poman  faction 
induced  overtures  to  the  Huguenots.  Their  adver- 
saries now  negotiated  with  Philip  II.  the  Catholic 
League  for  the  extermination  of  Protestantism,  and 
a  desolating  war  ensued.  In  1589  a  Dominican 
monk  assassinated  the  last  king  of  the  Valois  family ; 
his  infamous  mother,  Catharine  de  Medici,  died  in 
the  same  year.  Henry  of  ISTavarre,  for  twenty  years 
the  acknowledged  head  of  the  Huguenots,  succeeded, 
to  maintain  the  struggle  against  the  League  at 
Arques  and  Ivry,  but  to  sacrifice  his  own  Pro- 
testantism  to   the   dictates   of    political   sagacity  in 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY.  133 

1593.  The  peculiar  position  of  this  sovereign,  how- 
ever, rendered  his  reign  favourable  alike  to  Pro- 
testantism and  to  the  liberties  of  the  Gallican 
Church.  Five  years  after  his  abjuration,  Henry 
authorised  the  famous  Edict  of  Nantes,  declaring 
Protestants  eligible  for  civil  offices  and  permitting 
the  public  exercise  of  their  worship  in  cei-tain  parts 
of  France,  1598.  Jean  Chastel's  attempt  to  as- 
sassinate the  king,  and  his  defence  of  such  deeds 
on  Jesuit  principles,  raised  a  storm  of  indignation 
against  the  Society  of  Jesus.  Its  members  were 
expelled  from  France,  as  seducers  of  youth,  disturbers 
of  the  public  peace,  and  enemies  of  the  king  and 
state.  This  edict  was  not  cancelled  till  1603,  and 
then  it  was  stipulated  that  all  Jesuits  residing  in 
France  must  be  Frenchmen. 

In  England,  as  elsewhere,  the  way  was  paved  for  a 
Keformation  by  the  fautors  of  the  New   The  English 

.  .  .        Reformation. 

Learning.  Prominent  among  these  m  its  dawn, 
the  early  part  of  the  century  were  Grocyn,  the  friend  of 
Erasmus,  who  printed  a  Greek  Testament  with  a  Com- 
mentary ;  Dean  Colet,  who  read  Greek  Testament 
lectures  at  Oxford  and  St.  Paul's  ;  Thomas  More,  the 
author  of  Utopia ;  and  Fisher,  Bishop  of  Rochester, 
who  established  the  new  studies  at  Cambridge. 
Erasmus  himself  spent  many  years  in  England,  and 
under  Fisher's  auspices  became  Professor  of  Greek 
and  Lady  Margaret  Professor  at  Cambridge.  More 
and  Fisher,  however,  were  driven  by  later  events  to 
the  reactionist  side,  the  latter  being  the  only  bishop 
who  did  not  acquiesce  in  the  changes  of  Henry  VIII. 
Both  were  beheaded  in  1535  for  refusing  the  tenet  of 


134     MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

the  king's  ecclesiastical  supremacy.  In  this  group 
of  intellectual  Keformers  we  may  also  include  the 
great  Cardinal  Wolsey,  who  liberally  patronised  the 
JSTew  Learning  at  both  Universities.  Wolsey's  alien- 
ation of  certain  small  monastic  endowments  to  the 
foundation  of  Christ  Church,  gave  a  pretext  for  the 
ruthless  attack  on  the  religious  houses  subsequently 
authorised  by  the  grasping  king. 

The  actual  rupture  with  Rome  was,  however,  due 

Henry  VIII, 's  to  a  less  respectable  influence   than  the 

^S^ofpTpar*'^'^'^*'^^^^*^^-     Henry,  enamoured  of  Anne 

authority.  Boleyn,  sought  to  divorce  Catharine  of 
Aragon,  on  the  plea  that  she  had  been  his  brother's 
wife.  The  matter  was  referred  to  Pope  Clement  VII., 
who,  for  political  reasons,  ordered  his  legates  Campeg- 
gio  and  Wolsey  to  temporise.  The  king,  exasperated 
by  the  delay,  degraded  Wolsey,  secured  a  favourable 
verdict  from  various  universities,  from  Parliament  and 
Convocation,  and  in  defiance  of  a  Papal  bull  married 
Anne  in  1532.  Cranmer,  a  Cambridge  Fellow,  who 
had  found  favour  with  the  king,  was  elevated  to 
Canterbury  to  hold  a  court  which  accused  Catharine 
of  contumacy,  and  declared  the  first  marriage  invalid. 
Henry  strengthened  his  position  by  claiming  to  be 
"  supreme  head "  of  the  Church  of  England,  on  the 
ground  that  the  Church  was  coterminous  with  the 
nation.  This  claim  was  acknowledged  by  Parliament 
and  Convocation  1531-4.  The  former  body  secured 
at  the  same  time  relief  from  certain  clerical  exactions, 
and  the  right  of  reviewing  all  future  ecclesiastical 
canons.  The  latter  had,  as  early  as  1531,  prayed  for 
the  abolition  of  the  annates  payable  to  the  Pope,  and 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY.  135 

in  1533  these  were  prohibited  together  with  the  bulls 
and  licences  hitherto  employed  in  appointments  to 
bishoprics.  The  Statute  for  the  Restraint  of  Appeals 
in  the  same  year  declared  the  temporalty  and 
spiritualty  of  England  severally  competent  to  judge  its 
own  affairs.  In  1534  we  find  Parliament  asserting 
that  the  Pope  has  no  greater  jurisdiction  in  England 
"than  any  other  foreign  bishop,"  and  the  king  pro- 
viding for  the  erasure  of  the  Pope's  name  from  all 
mass-books,  rubrics,  etc.  The  rupture  was  completed 
when  Paul  III.  was  incited  by  the  execution  of  Fisher 
and  More  to  excommunicate  Henry  and  absolve  his 
subjects  from  allegiance,  1535. 

Henry's  Peformation  went  little  further  than  re- 
pudiation   of    Papal  control,    and    a    cruel  Henry's  Refor- 

and  destructive  abolition  of  the  monas-  "i^tion. 
teries  (1536-9),  prompted  by  avarice  rather  than 
theological  proclivities.  The  king  had  himself 
attacked  Luther  in  an  "  Assertio  septem  Sacramen- 
torum,"  and  been  rewarded  by  Leo  X.  with  the  title 
"  Fidei  Defensor."  The  dogma  of  transubstantiation 
was  included  in  the  10  Articles  of  1536  (a  production 
of  moderate  conservative  character),  and  was  protected 
by  the  sanguinary  statute  of  6  Articles  in  1539.  It 
is  true  that  vernacular  translations  of  the  Bible  and 
Missal  were  now  authorised,  and  that  mediaeval  saints 
were  deprived  of  their  posthumous  honours.  But 
broadly  Henry's  religious  aim  was  Catholicism  without 
the  Pope.  If  maintainei'S  of  Papal  supremacy  went 
to  the  gibbet,  Lutherans  and  Anabaptists  were  burnt 
as  heretics.  The  king's  chief  agents  were  his  un- 
principled   chancellor    of   the   exchequer,    Cromwell, 


136      MANUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

beheaded  1540,  and  Archbishop  Cranmer,  a  divine  of 
real  ability  but  of  vacillating  disposition.  The  ad- 
vanced Reforming  section  included  Latimer,  the 
preaching  prelate,  who  on  the  passing  of  the  six 
Articles  resigned  the  bishopric  of  Worcester,  and 
Kidley,  Cranmer's  chaplain.  The  leading  divines  of 
the  reactionary  party  were  Gardiner,  Bishop  of  Win- 
chester, and  Bonner,  Bishop  of  London,  who  in  the 
next  reign  was  ousted  in  favour  of  Ridley. 

The  accession  of  the  boy  Edward  VI.,  and  the 
The  English  ascendency  of  the  grasping  and  unprin- 
unde^ESd  cipled  statesmen  Somerset  and  Northum- 
^^"  berland,  gave  a  new  direction  to  this 
Reformation.  The  Church,  albeit  without  breach  of 
continuity,  w^as  impelled  in  the  direction  of  Zwinglian 
Protestantism.  The  reactionary  prelates  were  per- 
secuted ;  Church  property  was  alienated  ;  the  acces- 
sories of  mediaeval  worship  were  swept  away.  The 
salient  features  in  the  story  of  this  reign  are  indi- 
cated by  the  appropriation  of  chantries,  1547,  the 
injunctions  against  the  ancient  ritual,  1549,  the  First 
and  Second  vernacular  Prayer  Books,  1549  and  1552, 
the  42  Articles,  1553.  These  Prayer  Books  and 
Articles  served  as  bases  for  the  documents  which,  in 
Elizabeth's  reign,  gave  the  English  Reformation  finality. 
Cranmer's  views  were  at  this  period  much  influenced 
by  the  refugee  Protestants,  Bucer  and  Peter  Martyr. 
The  Communion  Office  in  the  Second  Prayer  Book 
favoured  Zwingle's  theory  of  the  purely  commemora- 
tive purpose  of  the  Eucharist.  The  Zwinglian 
attitude  was  less  equivocally  represented  in  the  epis- 
copate by  Hooper  of  Gloucester,  who  tried  to  abolish 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY,  137 

the  distinctive  episcopal  vestment,  and  by  Kidley 
of  London,  who  substituted  an  "  honest  table  "  for 
the  altar. 

The  maladministration  of  this  reign,  and  the 
intrigue  to  secure  the  throne  for  the  ^he  reaction 
Protestant  Jane  Dudley,  accounts  for  the  p^secutioZof 
religious  reaction  under  Mary.  This  queen,  *^^  Reformers, 
with  the  full  consent  of  Parliament  and  Convocation, 
not  only  reverted  to  the  status  of  1547,  but  undid 
Henry's  legislation,  and  formally  restored  England  to 
the  obedience  of  the  Pope.  Parliament  and  Convo- 
cation received  absolution  from  Cardinal  Pole  as  legate 
of  Julius  III.,  in  1554.  But  a  senseless  and  bloody 
persecution  of  Protestantism,  suggested  by  the  Spanish 
divines  who  accompanied  Philip  II.  to  England,  de- 
prived the  old  faith  of  the  ground  thus  singularly  re- 
covered, 1555-8.  Besides  prelates  such  as  Cranmer, 
Ridley,  Hooper,  Latimer,  and  Ferrar,  and  conspicu- 
ous clergymen  such  as  Taylor  and  Rogers,  300  per- 
sons, chiefly  of  the  lower  orders,  perished  in  the 
flames. 

Popular  disgust  at  these  cruelties  gave  a  van- 
tage ground  to  the  moderate  system  The  Heforma- 
which  was  favoured  by  Elizabeth,  and  by  Elizabeth. 
which  under  the  guidance  of  Archbishop  Parker 
became  stereotyped  as  the  religion  of  the  English 
Church.  Of  this  system  in  its  combination  of 
Catholicism  and  Protestantism,  the  chief  expon- 
ents are  the  Prayer  Book  of  1559  and  the  39 
Articles  of  1563.  The  sacraments  are  here  treated 
as  veritable  means  of  grace.  The  essentials  of 
primitive  Catholicism  are  conserved,  albeit  not  only 


138     MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

Popery  but  the  meclianical  system  of  the  Middle 
Ages  is  discarded.  The  English  Church  of  the  future 
was  to  be  a  reformed  body,  but  not,  Hke  the  Lutheran 
and  Calvinistic  societies,  a  new  creation.  Provision 
w^as  made  for  the  canonical  consecration  of  the  new 
bishops,  and  in  all  other  respects  care  was  taken  that 
the  transition  from  the  mediaeval  system  should  entail 
no  breach  of  continuity.  But  the  Marian  bishops 
clung  to  the  restored  Romanism  of  1554.  They 
specially  resented  the  tenet  of  the  royal  supremacy, 
although  divested  by  Elizabeth  of  all  that  savoured  of 
Byzantinism.  They  were  deprived,  and  their  fate 
was  shared  by  some  190  reactionist  clergy.  The 
Romanists,  however,  both  lay  and  clerical,  mostly 
remained  faithful  to  the  national  Church  till  1570, 
when  Pius  V.,  by  excommunicating  and  depriving  the 
sovereign,  precipitated  a  religious  feud.  This  was 
embittered  by  the  appearance  of  Jesuit  missionaries 
advocating  Elizabeth's  assassination.  The  Jesuits 
abetted  the  hostilities  of  Spain,  which  culminated  in 
the  unsuccessful  expedition  of  the  Great  Armada.  In 
the  next  reign  they  were  the  authors  of  the  Gun- 
powder Plot.  It  is  not  surprising  that  for  many 
years  to  come  Romanism  was  restrained  by  disfran- 
chisement and  other  penalties. 

At  the  opposite  pole  of  thought  was  a  party  which 
Turbulence  of  cluring  the  Marian  troubles  had  imbibed 
the  Puritans,  ^j^^  tcnets  of  ultra-Protestantism.  Its 
chief  fautors  were  men  who  had  fled  from  the  perse- 
cution to  Geneva  and  Frankfort.  They  accepted  the 
narrow  Calvinistic  views  of  Predestination  and  Justifi- 
cation.   In  Church  government  they  desired  to  set  up 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY.  139 

the  mixed  presbytery  of  Calvin's  institution.  Shielded 
by  the  profligate  Leicester,  encouraged  by  foreign 
reformers,  and  humoured  by  Ai'chbishop  Grindal,  this 
''  Puritan  "  faction  waxed  strong.  But  the  primacy  of 
Whitgift,  1583,  inaugurated  a  different  policy.  Strin- 
gent tests  were  now  laid  before  clergy  suspected  of 
disaffection  to  the  Anglican  system,  and  candidates 
for  orders  were  required  to  accept  the  Articles  and 
the  Prayer  Book  as  "  agreeable  to  the  Word  of  God." 
Whitgift's  aim  was  aided  by  the  excesses  of  the 
Puritans,  who  in  1588  disgusted  England  by  the  foul 
aspersions  on  the  episcopate  known  as  the  Martin 
Marprelate  libels.  The  Government  was  obliged  to 
deal  severely  with  the  libellers,  and  their  disrepute 
for  awhile  shattered  the  Puritan  cause.  The  more 
violent  of  these  religionists  retired  to  Holland,  which 
was  soon  perturbed  by  the  vagaries  of  the  Barrowists, 
Brownists,  and  kindred  sects. 

Among  the  many  famous  divines  of  this  reign  wei-e 
Bishop  Jewel,  whose  "Apology,"  1562,  j^^^^  jj^^^^^^ 
maintaining  the  Catholicity  of  the  English  Andrewes. 
Church,  gained  European  fame ;  Hooker,  who  as  Master 
of  the  Temple,  wrote  the  famous  "Ecclesiastical  Polity," 
in  answer  to  the  Puritan  lecturer  Travers,  1600  ]  and 
Lancelot  Andrewes,  who  by  his  influence  with  Whitgift 
saved  the  Church  from  the  Calvinism  embodied  in 
the  nine  "  Lambeth  Articles"  of  1595. 

Ireland  was  ordered  to  accept  Henry's  anti-Papal 
legislation  in  1537,  and  the  First  Prayer      The  Irish 

Book    of    Edward    YI.    in    1551.       No  pro-    Reformation. 

vision  was  made  for  translating  this  work  into  Irish, 
and  the  appointment  of   the  scurrilous  ultra-Protes- 


140      MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

tant  John  Bale  to  the  See  of  Ossory,  1553,  probably 
did  not  endear  the  new  religion  to  the  natives.  The 
course  of  affairs  under  Edward  and  Mary  was  much 
the  same  as  in  England,  but  the  queen  died  before  the 
persecution  took  effect  in  Ireland.  The  ecclesiastical 
enactments  of  Elizabeth  were  accepted  bv  an  Irish 
synod  in  1560.  Romanist  opposition  came  to  a  head 
in  1570,  and  fostered  frequent  rebellions.  The  Thirty t 
nine  Articles  were  not  prescribed  to  the  Irish  Church, 
which  retained  instead  the  short  series  of  Eleven 
Articles  compiled  by  Parker  for  the  English  Church 
in  1559.  The  lack  of  a  minuter  test  accounts  for  the 
promulgation  of  the  Irish  Articles  of  1615.  This 
lengthy  formulary  was  the  production  of  the  Calvinistic 
Archbishop  Usher,  and  incorporates  the  Lambeth 
Articles.  It  was  abolished  in  favour  of  the  Thirty- 
nine  Articles  by  the  influence  of  Strafford  and  Laud, 
in  1635.  The  history  of  this  Reformed  Church  is 
throughout  unsatisfactory.  For  many  years  it  scarcely 
attempted  to  influence  the  natives.  The  Act  of 
Uniformity,  1560,  instead  of  authorising  an  Irish 
translation  of  the  Prayer  Book,  had  merely  allowed 
the  alternative  of  Latin  where  English  was  not  under- 
stood. The  New  Testament  itself  was  not  translated 
into  Irish  till  1602. 

The  Scotch  Reformation  was  initiated  by  the 
The  Scotch  preaching  of  the  Lutheran,  Patrick 
Reformation.  Hamilton,  who  was  burnt  in  1528.  The 
Parliament  passed  a  rigorous  act  against  "  the  damn- 
able opinions  of  that  great  heretic  Luther,"  in  1535, 
and  in  1545  the  French  party,  headed  by  Cardinal 
Beatoun,  conducted  a  persecution,  under   which   the 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY,  141 

preacher  Wishart  suffered.  The  reaction  consequent 
on  this  oppression  drew  Scotland  steadily  onwards  in 
the  direction  of  Calvinistic  Protestantism.  Beatoun 
was  murdered  by  some  zealots,  who  received  counten- 
ance from  John  Knox,  the  bigoted  leader  of  the 
Scotch  Reformation.  For  years  the  Scotch  religious 
question  was  entangled  in  the  intrigues  of  the  English 
and  French  courts.  The  Council  of  Edward  VI.  tried 
to  effect  an  alliance  with  the  northern  Protestants, 
whose  leaders,  the  "  Lords  of  the  Congregation,"  had 
leagued  under  the  "Covenant"  of  1557.  Knox, 
however,  objected  to  the  conservative  tone  of  the 
English  Prayer  Books,  and  declined  the  bribe  of  pre- 
ferment in  England.  In  the  reign  of  Mary,  Knox 
retired  to  the  Continent,  and  figured  prominently 
in  the  wordy  wars  of  Frankfort  and  Geneva.  He 
returned  to  Scotland  deeply  penetrated  by  the  prin- 
ciples of  Calvin,  headed  the  iconoclastic  havoc  of  1559, 
and  was  the  leader  of  the  fanatical  Presbyterians  till 
1572.  After  the  death  of  Mary  of  Guise  in  1560,  the 
Lords  of  the  Congregation  entered  Edinburgh  in  arms, 
and  Parliament  met  to  abolish  the  Pope's  jurisdiction, 
attach  penalties  to  hearing  the  Mass,  authorise  the 
Calvinistic  "  Confession  of  Faith,"  and  decree  the 
destruction  of  all  cloisters  and  abbeys.  In  1567 
Parliament  made  the  monarchy  Protestant.  That 
prelacy  was  retained  for  awhile  was  due  mainly  to 
the  grasping  statesmen  who  appropriated  or  taxed 
the  revenues  of  their  episcopal  nominees.  Keally  the 
Scotch  Kirk  was,  from  1560,  an  independent  body, 
governed  by  presbyteries,  synods,  and  general  assem- 
blies.    This    basis   of   government   was  protected  in 


142     MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

1578  by  the  second  Book  of  Discipline.  Andrew 
Melville  pressed  the  attack  on  episcopacy,  and  in 
1580  the  General  Assembly  decreed  its  extirpation, 
and  summoned  the  bishops  to  resign  on  pain  of 
excommunication.  But  it  was  not  till  1592  that  the 
Parliament  legalised  the  new  ecclesiastical  government 
by  accepting  the  second  Book  of  Discipline,  and 
substituting  a  presbyterian  rule  for  that  of  the  bishops. 
The  weak  king  James  YI.,  who  had  consented  to  the 
Act  of  Annexation,  1587,  which  so  disendowed  the 
bishoprics  as  to  make  them  not  worth  taking,  and 
who  had  allowed  the  Assembly  to  persecute  Archbishop 
Adamson,  now  intrigued  to  establish  a  sham  episco- 
pate. In  1597  he  secured  a  quasi-revival  of  the 
prelates  in  the  shape  of  delegates  from  the  Kirk  to 
the  Parliament.  These  ministers  were  to  correspond 
in  number  and  titles  to  the  ancient  parliamentary 
prelates.  The  Crown  was  to  have  a  voice  in  the 
appointment,  but  the  prelate  was  to  be  responsible 
for  his  proceedings  in  Parliament  to  the  General 
Assembly.  The  Presbyterians  generally  regarded  this 
anomalous  arrangement  with  dislike,  which  was  not 
diminished  by  the  king's  publication  of  the  "True 
Law  of  Free  Monarchies,"  and  the  "Ba>ilikonDoron," 
both  upholding  the  principle  of  autocracy.  The 
General  Assembly,  however,  ratified  it  in  1600.  It 
was  destined  to  lead  on  to  momentous  consequences. 
The  Netherlands  received  Lutheran  principles  as 
early  as  1521.     Prom  this  time  onward, 

The  Reforma-  "^  .  .  .  ' 

tioninthe     a    persecution    was    directed    aorainst   all 

Netherlands.    _    ^  •       i  .      -r-n        •   i       i         •     • 

Protestants  m  his  Flemish  dominions  by 
Charles  V.     Yet  the  doctrines  of   the  Reformation 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY.  143 

spread  fast.  The  excesses  of  the  Anabaptists  in 
these  parts  have  been  noticed.  Gradually  the  Dutch 
Reformers  inclined  to  the  more  sober  system  of 
Geneva.  The  Confessio  Belgica  (copied  from  the 
French  Confession)  was  accepted  in  1562.  This  and 
the  Heidelberg  Catechism  became  the  basis  of  Dutch 
Protestantism.  Meanwhile  Philip  II.  had  used  every 
effort  to  extirpate  the  new  religion.  The  atrocities 
of  the  Inquisition  were  inflicted  by  Granvella,  the 
Cardinal  Bishop  of  Arras.  The  desolating  march  of 
the  bigot  Alva  followed,  1567-8.  The  cause  of 
Protestantism  became  that  of  civil  freedom,  and 
as  such  was  espoused  by  William  of  Orange,  who 
effected  the  celebrated  relief  of  Leyden  in  1574, 
and  in  1579  became  the  Stadtholder  of  the  seven 
united  provinces  of  the  north.  After  his  assas- 
sination by  a  Spanish  hireling,  1584,  the  war  was 
continued  by  his  son  and  successor,  Maurice.  At 
last  the  independence  of  the  seven  provinces  was 
acknowledged  by  Spain  in  1609.  That  religion  in 
the  southern  Netherlands  took  a  different  course 
was  largely  due  to  the  policy  of  the  Duke  of  Parma, 
who,  instead  of  persecuting,  offered  the  bribe  of 
enlarged  political  rights.  His  efforts  were  seconded 
by  the  Jesuits,  who  succeeded  in  re-establishing  the 
Papacy  in  the  alienated  cities  of  Flanders  and 
Brabant  no  less  than  in  those  of  the  French  border. 

In  Denmark,  Norway,  and  Iceland,  under  Luther's 
friend,     Christian     III.,     the     religious 

1  •  1  1  1  •  1  ^^  Denmark, 

struggle    ended   with   the    establishment  Norway,  ice- 

c.i  T,i  I  •  T/-nw     land,  Sweden. 

ot     the     Lutheran     system,     cir.     1537. 

Sweden   had   received   the   new  doctrines   from   the 


Ui     MAXrAL   OF  CHURCU  HISTORY, 

brothers  Peterson  in  1519.  They  found  here  a  royal 
champion  of  the  same  type  as  Henry  VIII.  Gustavus 
Yasa,  in  spite  of  a  formidable  insurrection,  asseited 
his  own  ecclesiastical  supremacy,  appropriated  clerical 
revenues,  suppressed  monasteries,  and  established  the 
main  features  of  the  Lutheran  system.  But  his 
successor,  John,  who  had  mairied  a  Polish  Romanist, 
forced  on  Sweden  a  liturgy  of  i-eactionary  tendency. 
The  religious  conflict  came  to  an  issue  when  the  per- 
secuting Sigismund  III.  of  Poland  succeeded  in  1592. 
The  leading  statesmen,  under  Sigismund's  uncle 
Charles,  proclaimed  the  Confession  of  Augsburg  as 
the  national  standard  of  faith,  and  prohibited  both 
Eomanism  and  Calvinism.  Sigismund,  by  the  advice 
of  the  Jesuits,  secured  the  crown  by  feigned  ac- 
quiescence, and  at  once  endeavoured  to  enforce  a 
sanction  of  Romanism.  The  Diet  retaliated  by 
ordering  the  expulsion  of  all  persons  opposed  to 
Lutheranism.  War  ensued.  Sigismund's  forces  were 
defeated,  and  the  throne  passed  to  Charles,  and  after- 
wards to  his  celebrated  son,  Gustavus  Adolphus. 
Sweden  retained  the  Lutheran  doctrines.  But,  like 
Eno-land,  it  underwent  Reformation  without  losing 
its  episcopal  succession.  It  is  governed  still  by  an 
Archbishop  of  Upsala  and  thirteen  bishops. 

Poland  first  received  the  Reforming  tenets  from 
Bohemia.  It  became  a  hot-bed  of  strange 
opinions.  The  elder  Socinus  gained  a 
footing  in  Poland,  and  anti-Trinitarian  heresies  were 
specially  rife.  The  first  Unitarian  Confession  w^as 
printed  at  Cracow  in  1574,  and  the  learned  and 
■wealthy   Faustus    Socinus   did   much   to   make   this 


In  Poland. 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY.  145 

system  popular.  The  orthodox  Protestantism  which 
had  been  fostered  by  Sigismund  Augustus,  1548,  was 
sapped  by  sectarian  conflicts,  and  was  finally  upset  by 
the  exertions  of  Sigismund  III.  (1587-1632)  and  his 
Jesuit  allies. 

In  Spain  an  opposition  to  ecclesiastical  abuses  was 
headed  by  Juan  and  Alfonso  de  Yaldez,  j^  ^  -^  ^^^ 
and  became  a  real  Lutheran  movement  ^'^^^^' 
under  Rodrigo  de  Yalero,  and  his  famous  disciple, 
Juan  Gil,  or  Egidius.  The  latter  was,  however,  com- 
pelled by  the  Inquisition  to  make  a  public  abjuration 
in  1552.  Other  leading  Reformers  were  Domingo 
de  Rojas,  a  Dominican  of  noble  birth,  and  Agustin 
Cazalla.  But  under  such  a  sovereign  as  Philip  II. 
there  was  no  chance  for  Protestantism.  The  Reform- 
ing party  underwent  a  terrible  persecution,  and  by 
1570  the  new  tenets  were  completely  stamped  out. 
Even  Carranza,  Archbishop  of  Toledo,  who  had  taken 
a  leading  part  at  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  contributed 
largely  to  the  success  of  the  Marian  reaction  in 
England,  died  a  victim  to  the  suspicions  of  the 
Inquisition.  In  Italy  Protestantism  w^as  equally 
unsuccessful.  The  preaching  of  Bernard  Ochin  and 
Pietro  Yermigli  (Peter  Martyr)  was  interrupted  by  the 
Inquisition,  and  here,  as  indeed  in  Southern  Europe 
generally,  the  new  tenets  failed  to  strike  root. 

The   Reformation   thus   divides    Europe   into  two 
sections.     The  one  is  united  in  doctrine  ;     ., 

-"      Aosence  of 

and,  under   the  influence  of   the   supple    harmony  in 

^  ^  Reformed 

Jesuits,  readily  adapts  itself  to  the  new     churches. 

^  _  Diverse  views 

democratic  tendency.     The  other  aspires      of  state 

.  .  relations. 

to  be  at  most  but  a  congeries  of  rsational 

10 


U6     MANUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

Churches.  Its  component  parts  are  separated,  not 
only  by  doctrinal  diflerences,  but  by  widely  diver^e 
theories  of  the  relations  of  Church  and  State.  In 
England  the  tendency  to  exalt  the  Crown  is  apparent. 
Under  the  Stuarts  it  attains  a  significance  fatal  to 
the  Anglican  cause.  In  the  Lutheran  states  the 
magistrate  encroaches  on  the  Church,  and  generally 
nominates  pastors  at  his  will.  In  the  Calvinistic 
bodies  not  only  is  self-government  claimed,  but  the 
aim  is  to  substitute  ecclesiastical  for  secular  control. 
The  Genevan  Consistory  of  twelve  elders  and  six 
ministers  burns  the  Unitarian  Servetus  propria  rtiotu, 
in  1553.  In  Scotland  the  Kirk  awes  society  with 
continual  censures  and  excommunications,  which 
the  magistrates  are  compelled  to  endorse.  Andrew 
Melville  addresses  James  himself  as  a  "subject  of 
the  Kirk,"  "  not  a  king,  nor  a  head,  nor  a  lord,  but 
a  member." 

That  the  revolt  from  the  centralising   system   of 
TheReforma-  ecclesiastical    policy    and    its    numerous 
iitteUectuai    ^buscs,  was  of  inestimable  service  to  the 
progress,     cause   of   literature   and    science   is   un- 
deniable.     This    tendency,    however,    was    at    first 
obscured  by  the  turmoil  of  religious  conflict,  and  it 
was  not  till  the  close  of  the  century  that  the  new 
ecclesiastical  systems  began  to  work  in  harmony  with 
the  intellectual  movement  that  had   heralded   their 
rise.       Classical    erudition    after    the    appearance    of 
Erasmus,  Ludovicus  Yives,  and  Jean  Bude  declined  ; 
and  even  in  Italy,  the  cradle  of  the  New  Learning, 
Greek  scholarship  threatened  to  become  extinct.     In 
England,   in    1563,    only   three    clergymen    of    the 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY,  147 

Middlesex  archdeaconry  are  reported  as  ''  docti 
Latine  et  Greece."  But  of  far  greater  importance 
than  this  temporary  decadence  of  classical  studies  was 
the  dawn  of  physical  science,  heralded  by  the  great 
discovery  of  Copernicus  {d.  1543).  The  larger  view 
of  the  system  of  the  universe,  consequent  on  the  over- 
throw of  the  Ptolemaic  theory,  necessarily  induced  a 
new  philosophy.  The  case  of  Galileo  shows  how 
unfavourable  to  this  upgrowth  would  have  been  the 
soil  of  mediaeval  Catholicism.  Only  in  a  Reformed 
Christendom  could  it  flourish.  The  reign  of  the 
Schoolmen  was  about  to  be  superseded  by  that  of 
inductive  scientists.  Dogma,  begotten  of  dialectics 
and  kept  alive  by  persecution,  was  to  give  place  to  a 
Christianity  rational  and  practical,  needing  no  apology, 
and  capable  of  ceding  wide  tolerance.  But  ere  such 
a  status  could  be  realised,  another  century  of  logomachy 
and  religious  wars  had  to  elapse.  Throughout  it  the 
Protestant  (belying  the  inherent  principles  of  the 
Reformation)  often  appears  as  cruel  in  his  treatment 
of  supposed  misbelief  as  the  inheritor  of  mediaeval 
religion.  Indeed,  in  Puritan  America  the  hateful 
system  of  persecution  survived,  long  after  the  prin- 
ciples of  tolerance  had  permeated  the  Old  World. 


T 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY. 

HE  early  years  of  this  century  revived  through- 
out Western  Christendom  the  time-honoured 
strife  of  Augustine  and  Pelagius,  Gott- 
Contioversies.  schalk  and  Hincmar.  In  the  Roman 
and  Domini-  Church  the  Jesuits  (destined  shortly  to 
engage  in  the  larger  Jansenist  contro- 
versy) maintain  the  cause  of  human  freedom.  In  the 
Reformed,  Arminius  revolts  from  the  gloomy  logic  of 
Calvinism.  The  contest  begins  with  an  attack  on 
Jesuit  orthodoxy  by  the  Spanish  Dominicans.  Already 
the  Dominicans  had  evinced  their  jealousy  of  the 
successes  of  the  new  Order  by  fomenting  a  rebellion 
in  it  against  the  despotic  powers  of  the  General.  The 
Spanish  Jesuits,  affronted  by. the  election  of  Acqua- 
viva,  a  Neapolitan  attached  to  the  French  party,  1581, 
had  been  won  over  to  the  proposal  that  the  General's 
authority  should  be  limited  by  conciliar  action,  and 
Sixtus  Y.  had  ratified  it  authoritatively.  Not  con- 
tent with  thus  reshaping  the  constitution  of  the 
society,  the  Dominicans  now  proceeded  to  assail  its 
theology.  We  need  not  ascribe  it  only  to  their 
antagonism  to  Calvin,  that  the  Jesuits  were  wont  to 
ascribe  a  wide  sphere  of  action  to  man's  free  mil.    The 


SEVENTEEFTH  CENTURY,  149 

casuistry  attacked  afterwards  by  Pascal,  the  doctrines 
of  "  probability"  and  "  heteronomy " — theii'  very  aim  of 
restoring  to  mediaeval  E-omanism  its  lost  supremacy  at 
all  hazards — forbade  their  regarding  mankind  with  the 
eyes  of  an  Augustine.  Acquaviva's  "  Order  of  Studies," 
1584,  and  Molina's  "  Concordia,"  1588,  had  broken 
away  far  from  the  confines  demarcated  by  the  "Summa" 
of  Aquinas,  far  even  from  the  wdder  limits  assigned 
by  the  Council  of  Trent.  Molina  indeed  appears  to 
have  lowered  the  Divine  interposition  in  human 
actions,  from  the  status  of  predestination  to  that  of 
mere  foreknowledge.  An  event  does  not  occur  be- 
cause God  foreknew  it,  but  God  foreknew  it  because 
it  w^ould  happen.  It  was  natural  that  the  Domini- 
cans should  rise  in  support  of  their  "  Angelic  Doctor/' 
and  secure  a  condemnation  of  the  ''Concordia"  by 
the  Visitator  of  the  Inquisition.  France,  which 
shortly  afterw^ards  readmitted  the  Jesuits  (1603), 
espoused  their  cause  out  of  hatred  to  Spain,  and  soon 
Catholic  Europe  was  astir  with  the  dispute.  It  was 
submitted  to  the  Congregatio  de  Auxiliis  by  Clement 
VII.  in  1598,  but  so  powerful  were  the  rival  interests 
that  no  verdict  was  pronounced  for  fourteen  years. 
At  last  (1611)  Paul  Y.,  after  summoning  seventeen 
meetings,  gave  sentence  that  the  Holy  Ghost  had  not 
revealed  a  decision,  and  that  each  party  should  hold 
its  private  view  in  silence.  The  Jesuits  naturally 
regarded  the  toleration  thus  accorded  to  their  doctrine 
in  the  light  of  a  triumph. 

The  predestinarian  controversy  of  Protestant 
Europe  reaches  its  climax  a  little  later  at  the  Synod 
of   Dort,   1618.     The  dispute  was  embittered  by  the 


150      MANTAL   OF  CIlURCn  niSTORT. 

antagonism  of  the  two  great  Protestant  systems,  whose 
Arminiusand  niutnal  animosities  had  been  enlianced, 
Lort.^  Reluifs  (-"••  1C04,  by  the  desertion  of  Maurice 
quJrtJcuia^rl;;.  Landgrave  of  Hesse,  and  Sigismund 
troversy.  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  to  the  Calvin- 
istic  faith.  But  the  most  noted  champion  of  human 
freedom  was  not  a  Lutheran,  but  a  member  of  the 
Calvinistic  Church  of  Holland  and  a  Professor  at 
Leyden  University.  The  attitude  of  Harmensen 
(Arminius)  will  be  best  appreciated  if  we  present 
to  the  student  the  five  celebrated  dogmas  of  Cal- 
vinism which  triumphed  at  Dort,  and  append  the 
Arminian  modifications.  The  "  Five  Points  "  to 
which  the  Calvinistic  Churches  were  henceforth  com- 
mitted were  : — 

(1)  Predestination  of  some  to  life  eternal  and  others  to  damna- 
tion, and  this  "  without  respect  to  God's  foresight  of  men's  faith 
and  good  works,  or  an}'  conditions."  (2)  Particular  Redemption  ; 
i.e.  a  belief  that   Christ  died  for  the  benefit  of    the  elect  alone. 

(3)  Original  Sin  as  involving  the  total  corruption  of  human  nature. 

(4)  Irresistible  Grace  ;  i.e.  the  belief  that  Divine  grace  overpowers 
all  free-will  in  the  case  of  the  elect.  (5)  Final  Perseverance  of 
all  the  elect,  "  They  may  fall  partially  or  for  a  time,  but  not 
finally."  The  Arminians,  in  the  "Remonstrance"  drawn  up  by 
Episcopius  in  1610,  modified  these  rigorous  dogmas  thus.  In 
(1)  they  argued  that  God's  Predestination  was  limited  by  His 
foreknowledge  of  personal  conduct.  In  (2)  that  Christ  made 
expiation  for  the  sins  of  all  men,  but  that  only  believers  can  be 
partakers  of  this  benefit.  In  (3)  that  no  one  can  of  himself  attain 
saving  faith  ;  but  being  by  nature  born  unable  to  think  or  do  good 
he  must  be  born  again.  In  (4)  that  though  salvation  is  to  be 
ascribed  entirely  to  God's  grace,  this  grace  can  be  resisted  by 
man.  In  (5)  that  whether  men  once  regenerate  *'  can  fall  away 
or  not,  we  have  not  suflftcient  evidence." 

The  chief  points  of  difference  therefore  concerned 
Articles  (1),  (4),   and  (5).     Arminius  died   in  1609. 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY.  151 

The  leading  Arminians  were  henceforth  Barneveldt  and 
the  famous  jurist  and  scholar,  Hugo  Grotius.  The 
Arminian  cause  received  a  political  colouring,  and  was 
joined  by  many  from  mere  dislike  of  the  autocracy 
of  the  House  of  Orange.  It  was  accordingly  fiercely 
assailed  by  Prince  Maurice.  The  imprisonment  of 
Barneveldt  and  Grotius  and  general  persecution  of  the 
"Remonstrants"  were  followed  in  1618  by  the  con- 
vention of  the  Synod  of  Dort,  not  to  discuss  but  to 
condemn  the  Arminian  views.  This  synod  included 
61  Dutch  divines  and  28  delegates  from  the  Pala- 
tinate, Hesse,  Bremen,  and  Switzerland.  Four 
English  representatives  attended  at  the  desire  of 
James  I.  Their  presence,  however,  merely  indicated 
that  certain  court  divines  were  opposed  to  Arminian- 
ism,  for  the  English  formularies  spoke  vaguely  on 
the  questions  at  issue,  and  the  King  himself  advocated 
the  doctrine  of  universal  redemption.  At  Dort  the 
Arminian  deputies  were  refused  a  hearing  by  Presi- 
dent Bogermann,  and  were  sentenced  to  be  expelled 
from  the  synod  and  deprived.  The  Five  Articles  in 
all  their  rigour  were  enforced  on  Holland,  and  700 
families  who  refused  to  sign  them,  were  banished. 
Barneveldt  was  sentenced  to  death,  Grotius  to  a 
perpetual  imprisonment.  The  latter  contrived  to 
escape  in  1621,  and  after  retorting  severely  on  his 
persecutors  in  his  "  Apology,"  attached  liimself  to  the 
French  court,  and  attained  a  lasting  fame  as  a  jurist, 
historian,  and  Biblical  commentator.  But  Armin- 
ianism  was  crushed  in  Holland  by  these  severities. 
Episcopius,  when  suffered  to  return  in  1624,  appears 
to  have  broached  a  lax  system,  combining  the  tenets 


152     MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY, 

of  the  Unitarians  and  Universalists,  and  the  party 
never  recovered  its  repute.  In  England  the  distur- 
bance engendered  by  the  Quinquarticuhir  controversy 
was  such  as  to  suggest  the  Royal  "  Declaration  "  of 
1628,  still  prefixed  to  the  Thirty-nine  Articles, 
protesting  against  "  curious  search "  and  strained 
interpretations  of  this  formulary.  In  France  the 
Protestants  largely  followed  the  divines  of  Saumur, 
Cameron  and  Amyraut,  in  rejecting  the  harsher 
features  of  Calvinism,  and  de  la  Place  widened  the 
divergence  by  discarding  altogether  the  theory  that 
Adam's  sin  was  imputed  to  his  posterity.  Le  Blanc 
and  Pajon  afterwards  drew  on  their  heads  the  censures 
of  French  and  Dutch  synods  (1677,  1686)  by  a  rejec- 
tion of  the  whole  theory  of  human  depravity  and 
inefficiency.  The  German  Calvinists  were  equally 
averse  to  the  Procrustean  system  prescribed  by 
Holland ;  and  the  sentence  of  Dort  was  followed  by 
intestine  feuds  in  the  Reformed  Churches,  which  we 
shall  not  attempt  to  depict  in  detail.  The  ultra- 
Calvinists,  or  "  supra-lapsarians,"  maintained  that 
the  Fall  of  our  first  parents  was  inevitable ;  the 
"  infra-lapsarians "  that  it  was  only  permitted  not 
decreed;  the  Universalists  and  semi-Universalists 
impugned  the  Dort  dogma,  that  the  Atonement  only 
affected  a  limited  number  of  men. 

Meanwhile    the    old   and  the  new   religions   were 
preparing    for    that    great    thirty   years' 

Poll  tic  £ll 

attitude  of  the  struggle    (1619-49),  which  was   destined 
systems,      not  onlv  to  sccure  the  freedom    of   Pro- 

1600—1619.  /         ,  ,  ,  ,      ,1         T    . 

testantism,  but  also  to  leave  both  religious 
parties  sickened    of    proselytism,    and    content    with 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY.  153 

their    existent   line    of    demarcation.       From    1600. 
to    1619    Eomanism   is   actively   aggressive.       Sigis- 
mund  III.,  though  unsuccessful  in  Sweden,  succeeded 
in    eradicating    Protestantism    in    his    kingdom    of 
Poland,  and  a  rising  of  the  Protestant  and  Orthodox 
Poles  in  1608  only  resulted  in  the  imposition  of  civil 
disabilities.     The    indefatigable    Jesuits,  with    Sigis- 
mund's  help,   even  attempted  to  Komanize  Orthodox 
Kussia  by  espousing  the  cause  of  the  impostor  sove- 
reign Demetrius.     Other  princes  speeded  the  progress 
of  the  reactionary  movement  throughout  the  Empire. 
The  Archduke  Ferdinand,  afterwards  Emperor,  had 
in  1597    vowed    at    Pope   Clement's   feet    to   restore 
Catholicism  in  his  hereditary  dominions.     His  exer- 
tions   in    suppressing   the   Protestants  of    Carniola, 
Carinthia,  and  Styria,  were  emulated  by  his  cousin, 
the   Emperor   Kudolf,    who    expelled    the    Keformed 
clergy   from   Upper   and    Lower   Austria,  and    even 
attacked    the     Utraquists    of     Bohemia.       Pudolf's 
attempts  were,  however,  checked  by  an  insurrection 
which  transferred  a  large  part  of  his  dominions  to  his 
brother  Matthias,  and  this  prince  was  forced  to  re- 
quite his  elevation  by  a  cession  of  religious  freedom. 
Meanwhile     Protestantism     w^as     raising     bulwarks 
against    the   aggressions   of    the   rival   faith.      The 
princes   of    the  Empire  after   vainly    struggling   at 
the  Diet  of  Katisbon,  1608,  for  a  corroboration  of 
the  Peace  of    Augsburg,   organized  the    "  Protestant 
Union."      At    its    head   were    two    princes   of    the 
Palatinate,    two    of     Brandenburg,     the    Duke     of 
Wii'temberg,  and  the    Margrave    of     Baden.      But 
the  formation    of    the  Union  was  followed  by  that 


154      MANUAL   OF  CITUnCII  HISTOUY. 

of  the  "  Catholic  Lengue,"  initiated  by  Maximilian 
of  Bavaria  and  seven  ecclesiastical  princes,  and  joined 
by  Ferdinand  and  Spain.  By  the  Union  and  the 
League  the  field  was  cleared  for  the  great  war  of 
1619-49. 

We  have  yet  to  notice  France.     Here  Protestant- 
ism was    countered    by  moral    influences 

Exceptional  ^  -,  -,  •  mi      -r-» 

policy  of  rather  than  by  persecution.  Ihe  Komamst 
reaction  had  been  fostered,  not  by  intri- 
guing Jesuits  only,  but  by  devotees  such  as  Francis  of 
Sales  and  Mme.  de  Saint  Beuve.  It  had  given  birth 
to  various  new  Orders — the  Fathers  of  Christian 
Doctrine,  the  Priests  of  the  Oratory,  the  Congrega- 
tion of  St.  Maur,  the  educational  guild  of  Ursulines, 
and  the  Sisters  of  Mercy.  Even  under  Henry  TV. 
the  Protestants  had  sustained  many  desertions  from 
their  ranks.  After  his  death  in  1610,  the  influence 
of  Mary  de  Medici  gave  the  Catholics  a  decided  pre- 
dominance in  the  Court,  and  in  the  Assembly  of  the 
States.  But  the  attitude  of  France  in  the  great 
politico-religious  crisis  belied  her  convictions.  She 
takes  the  part  dictated  by  the  policy  of  Richelieu,  and 
in  fact  turns,  the  scale  in  favour  of  Protestantism. 
The  conflict  begins  with  Bohemia's  refusal  to  accept 
the  persecuting  Ferdinand    as    Matthias' 

The  Thirty  ^  -r         ,  .  ,1 

Years'  War  and  SUCCCSSOr.  In      hlS      stcad       sho      Set      Up 

Frederic  the  Elector  Palatine,  a  Protes- 
tant, connected  by  birth  or  marriage  with  the  ruling 
houses  of  England,  Denmark,  and  the  ISTetherlands, 
In  the  struggle  ensuing  the  divisions  of  Protestant- 
ism were  soon  fatally  significant.  Ferdinand  was 
advanced    by  the    aid  of    Protestant  princes  to  the 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY.  155 

imperial  dignity,  and  John  George,  Elector  of  Saxony, 
at  first  fought  on  his  side.  For  a  while  indeed  the 
cause  of  Romanism  attained  conspicuous  successes. 
The  battle  of  Weissberg,  1620,  speedily  put  an  end 
to  Frederic's  aspirations  in  Bohemia ;  and  Ferdinand 
arbitrarily  deprived  him  of  his  ancestral  dominions. 
The  confederacy  of  which  Chi-istian  of  Denmark  was 
the  general,  arrayed  itself  against  the  Emperor,  only 
to  be  routed  by  Tilly  and  the  Bohemian  Wallen- 
stein.  These  triumphs  persuaded  Ferdinand  that  he 
could  eradicate  Protestantism  from  the  Empire.  All 
Protestants  were  ordered  to  withdraw  from  Austria. 
Mass  was  made  compulsory  throughout  Southern 
Germany  ;  and  churches  which  for  half  a  century  had 
been  centres  of  Reformed  worship  were  made  over  to 
the  priests.  In  direct  violation  of  the  pledges  given 
by  former  Emperors,  all  Protestants  who  had  ac- 
quired ecclesiastical  property  were  summoned  to 
disgorge.  Groaning  beneath  these  requisitions,  and 
harassed  by  the  exactions  of  Wallenstein's  troops, 
Germany  appealed  to  Gustavus  Adolphus,  1630.  A 
series  of  victories  brought  the  great  Swede  to  the 
very  heart  of  the  Empire.  He  was  assisted  by  the 
sacrifice  of  Wallenstein  to  the  hatred  of  Ferdinand's 
nobles,  and  by  the  policy  which  induced  Richelieu  to 
subsidize  his  invasion.  Pope  Urban  YIIL  repeats 
at  this  juncture  the  part  of  Clement  VII. ;  and 
sacrificing  the  Church's  cause  to  the  hatred  of  the 
Empire,  sanctions  Richelieu's  policy.  It  is  only 
stipulated  that  Gustavus  shall  not  molest  the  Roman 
worship.  We  need  not  follow  Gustavus'  triumphant 
march  from  Pomerania  to  the  fatal  field  of  Lutzen, 


15G     MANUAL  OF  C II CRC II 'HISTORY. 

1632.  His  death  arrested  but  did  not  turn  the  tide 
of  victory,  and  the  Protestants,  with  Richelieu's  aid, 
maintained  their  ground  daring  the  sixteen  years 
ensuing.  The  Treaty  of  WestphaHa,  1648,  which 
ended  the  struggle,  secured  the  freedom  of  Holland 
and  Switzerland,  and  the  indemnification  of  Sweden. 
The  German  Protestants  obtained  an  endorsement  of 
the  Peace  of  Augsburg,  and  an  abrogation  of  the 
imperial  edict  for  the  restitution  of  ecclesiastical 
property.  France,  which  had  done  so  much  to  assist 
the  Protestant  triumph,  gained  for  herself  the  ex- 
tension of  her  frontier  in  the  direction  of  the  Rhine. 
The  territorial  limits  of  the  old  and  new  religions 
are  henceforth  demarcated.  Rome  retains  her  hold 
in  France,  the  Peninsula,  the  Southern  Netherlands, 
Poland,  Austria,  Hungary,  Bohemia,  and  Bavaria, 
Protestantism  rules  in  North  Germany,  the  Northern 
Netherlands,  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway, 
Some  of  these  Roman  acquisitions  were  of  recent 
date.  Hungary  had  reverted  to  Romanism  in 
1625,  owing  chiefly  to  the  exertions  of  Archbishop 
Pazmany.  In  Bohemia,  the  cradle  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, the  Utraquist  ritual  had  been  extirpated,  cir. 
1622,  by  the  activity  of  Gregory  XV.,  an  ardent 
patron  of  the  Jesuits,  and  the  founder  of  the  "  Con- 
gregatio  de  propaganda  fide." 

From    1611    to    1640   the    great    "free  will    con- 
Free  mil     troversy "    had    ceased    to    perturb    the 
controversy    Roman    world.      In    the    interval,    how- 
revived.  1         (»       1  -r 

Jansen's      cvor,    a   work   of    the    Jesuit   free-lance 
ugus  inus.   Q.gj^j,g^ggg^  jj^    which   the   moral   paradoxes 

of  his  Order   were   carried  to  a   ridiculous  extreme, 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY,  157 

had  called  forth    from    the  Abb6   de  Saint  Cyran  a 
crushing  rejoinder,  1625-6.     Garasse  has  been  styled 
"I'Helene   de  la  guerre  des  Jesuites  et  des  Jansen- 
istes."     Cornelius  Jansen,  Bishop  of  Ypres,   was  the 
intimate   friend    of    Saint    Cyran.     Both    were    con- 
vinced that  a  thorough  moral  reform  was  needed  in 
the  Church.     The   former   was   applying  himself  to 
a  vindication  of   the  rigid    Augustinian   doctrine  of 
Grace,   while   the  latter   pushed  the  cause  of  semi- 
mystical  asceticism.     The   respective  fruits   of   their 
labours  were  the  ''  Augustinus  "  and   the   fraternity 
of    Port-Royal.      The    "  Augustinus "    was    a    post- 
humous publication.     Jansen  bequeathed    it    (1640) 
to  the  Pope  for    judgment.      The  book,  while  pre- 
senting  the   great    Latin    Father    as    the    inspired 
exponent  of  the  doctrine  of  Grace,  lashed  the  moral 
system   of  the   "  Massilians "  in  terms   which  every 
reader  applied  to  the  Jesuits.      Edition  rapidly  fol- 
lowed   edition.      The   Jesuits    used   every   ejEFort    to 
convince  the  world  that  the  ''  Augustinus  "  was  here- 
tical,  and    persuaded  Urban   YIII.    to   publish   the 
bull  in    Eminenti,   1643,  condemning   it  in    general 
terms.      But   in   the   same   year   there   issued   from 
Port  Poyal  the  "  Frequente  Communion  "  of  Antoine 
Arnauld,  sapping  the  doctrine  of  the  opus  operatum 
by   its    demand    of    spiritual    qualifications    in    the 
communicant,    and    insisting    on    the    moral    tenets 
ignored   by  the  Jesuit    confessors.     The   "  Theologie 
morale  des  Jesuites"  followed  it,  1644.     Port  Poyal 
had    already    supplanted  the   French  Jesuits   by  its 
reputation    for    sanctity.      Henceforward    it    is   the 
centre  not  only  of  the  highest  spiritual  life,  but  of 


158     JIAXCAL   OF  CUCRCII  HISTORY. 

the  best  literary  efforts  of  the  age  of  Louis  XIV. 
At  present  its  most  noted  figures  were  Saint  Cyran, 
le  Maitre,  Arnauld,  and  his  sister  Angelique. 
Against  Port  Koyal  and  the  Jansenist  clergy  the 
Jesuits  conducted  a  protracted  warfare.  Their  former 
foes  the  Dominicans  were  won  over  by  questionable 
expedients  to  their  side.  The  leading  French  divines 
were  persuaded  to  petition  Home  for  a  more  definite 
censure  of  the  '' Augustinus."  Innocent  X.  in  1653 
accordingly  pronounced  a  condemnation  of  five  pro- 
positions extracted  by  Cornet,  the  Paris  theologian, 
from  the  work  of  Jansen,  viz., — 

(1)  There  are  Divine  commandments  which  good  men,  though 
willing,  are  unable  to  obey  ;  and  the  grace  by  which  these  com- 
mardments  are  possible  is  also  wanting.  (2)  No  person  in  the 
state  of  fallen  nature  is  able  to  resist  internal  grace.  (3)  In  order 
to  render  human  actions  meritorious  or  otherwise,  libertj^  from 
necessity  is  not  required,  but  only  freedom  from  restraint.  (4) 
The  semi-Pelagians,  while  admitting  the  necessity  of  prevenient 
grace,  were  heretics,  inasmuch  as  they  said  that  this  grace  was 
such  as  man  could,  according  to  his  will,  either  resist  or  obey. 
(5)  The  semi-Pelagians  also  erred  in  saying  that  Christ  died  for 
all  men  universally. 

The   Jansenists,    though   discomfited,  professed   to 
accept    the    Papal    bull,  on    receivinar    an 

The  Jesuit  i-  .       , 

persecution  of  assurance  from  Innocent  that  Augustine  s 
the  Jansenists.  (jQ^j^j^ij^g  ^f  gratia  efficax  remained  un- 
touched. But  their  enemies  did  not  let  the  matter 
rest  here.  They  persuaded  Alexander  VII.  to  declare 
in  a  bull  (1656),  that  the  condemned  propositions 
were  contained  in  the  "  Augustinus."  The  Jansenists 
refused  to  acknowledge  this  decision,  declaring  that 
Papal  infallibihty  did  not  extend  to  cognizance  of 
matters  of  fact.     At  this  juncture  their   cause  was 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY.  159 

favoured  by  the  appearance  of  miracles  at  Port 
Koyal.  A  less  questionable  influence  in  their  behalf 
was  the  issue  of  Pascal's  celebrated  Provincial  Letters, 
1656-7.  Here  the  casuistry  of  the  Jesuits  was 
made  the  butt  of  a  trenchant  satire,  which  roused 
laughter  in  every  part  of  Europe.  Yet  the  fatal 
alliance  of  the  Papacy  with  the  Company  of  Jesus 
remained  for  the  present  unimpaired.  The  young 
King  Lewis  XIV.  professed  a  devoted  subservience 
to  the  Pope.  The  Jesuits  pushed  the  question  de 
droit  oil  de  fait  to  an  issue,  by  persuading  Alexander 
to  enforce  on  all  who  held  preferment  in  France  a 
formula  asserting  that  the  five  piopositions  were  in 
Jansen's  "  Augustinus "  (1665).  The  Jansenists 
vainly  sought  some  mode  of  evasion.  The  oath  was 
rigorously  enforced,  and  the  recusants  were  harassed 
with  banishment,  imprisonment,  and  other  penalties. 
This  persecution  abated  in  1668,  when  Clement  IX. 
limited  the  Papal  demand  to  a  general  condemnation 
of  the  propositions.  Clement  reinstated  four  Jansenist 
bishops,  and  Port  Ptoyal  was  again  peopled  with 
devotees  of  both  sexes.  But  Lewis,  who  however 
w^avering  his  own  allegiance  to  Pome,  was  consistent 
in  his  cordial  dislike  of  Jansenism,  revoked  "  the 
peace  of  Clement"  by  the  edicts  of  1676  and  1679. 
Among  those  who  fled  from  this  second  outbreak 
of  persecution  was  Antoine  Arnauld,  who  became 
the  founder  of  the  Jansenist  party  in  Holland.  The 
Jesuits  were  not  satisfied  till  Port  Royal  was 
demolished  by  royal  order  in  1709. 

The  Jansenists  were  not   the    only   school  within 
the     Roman     Church    that     affronted     the     Jesuit 


160     MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

system    by    its    higli    spiritual    aims.   The    peculiar 
,  form  of   transcendental  theosophy  termed 

Persecution  of  _  . 

the  auietists.  "  quietism,"  which  has  in  every  troubled 
age  of  the  Church  been  the  resort  of  pietists  of 
retiring  disposition,  now  inspired  the  schools  of 
Molinos  and  Mme.  Guyon,  in  Italy  and  France. 
The  same  principles  actuated  these  quietists  that 
attracted  Kuysbroek,  Tauler,  and  Gerson  in  the 
14th  century,  and  the  canonized  Theresa  in  the 
16th.  But  the  high  spiritualism  which  raised 
Gerson  to  European  fame,  and  made  Theresa  a 
saint,  w^as  now  punished  as  a  heresy.  Molinos, 
a  Spanish  priest,  had  made  the  cause  of  ''holy 
indifference "  and  "  disinterested  love "  popular  in 
Italy,  even  in  the  court  of  Innocent  XI.  His 
"Spiritual  Guide,"  1675,  went  rapidly  through  many 
editions  in  different  languages.  It  was  the  task  of 
the  envious  Jesuits  to  find  in  the  transcendental 
pietism  of  this  work  a  disparagement  of  all  objective 
worship.  Lewis  XIV.  was  persuaded  to  rebuke  the 
Pope's  encouragement  of  heresy,  and  Molinos  was 
sacrificed  by  Innocent.  He  was  imprisoned,  and 
despite  his  disavowal  of  the  Jesuits'  charges  remained 
in  durance  till  his  death  in  1696.  Similar  is  the 
story  of  Mme.  Guyon,  for  a  time  the  idol  of 
Parisian  society,  patronized  by  Mme.  Maintenon, 
admired  by  Fenelon,  then  slandered  and  disgraced 
by  the  malignant  Bossuet,  and  relegated  to  the 
Bastille.  Fenelon's  literary  warfare  with  Bossuet  on 
this  subject  ended  in  an  appeal  to  Innocent  XII. 
The  influence  of  Versailles  again  turned  the  scale 
of    justice,    and   the   Archbishop    of    Cambray   sub- 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY.  161 

mitted  to  the  Papal  censure.  Of  the  other  noted 
names  in  the  Quietist  school  we  need  only  men- 
tion Petrucci,  Malavalle,  and  La  Combe,  Mme. 
Guyon's  instructor.  A  kindred  Protestant  develop- 
ment of  pietism  produced  in  England  the  Quaker 
sect,  to  be  noticed  hereafter. 

We  quit  the  Roman  Christianity  with  a  brief  ac- 
count of  the  Popes  of  the  century.  A  ^^  p^^^^^  j^ 
signal    improvement  is  noticeable  in  the  this  century. 

^  ^  The    Galilean 

lives  of  the  pontiffs.  They  contrast  with  Liberties  tabu- 
their  predecessors  of  the  pre- Reformation 
period  as  mostly  men  of  unstained  character.  Often 
they  attempt  to  reform  the  abuses  of  the  Roman 
Court ;  but  with  no  permanent  success.  Innocents 
XI.  and  XII.  (1676,  1691)  are  conspicuous  in  this 
connexion.  Despite  his  enlarged  pretentions  to  in- 
fallibility, the  Holy  Father's  power  abroad  is  obviously 
on  the  wane.  Not  only  do  the  Estates  of  Germany 
limit  by  strict  provisions  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Papal 
nuncios;  faithful  Spain  herself  restricts  the  inter- 
ference of  Rome  in  her  territory.  France  repeatedly 
under  Lewis  XIV.,  1643 — 1715,  sways  the  policy  of 
St.  Peter's  chair,  and  humiliates  its  occupant.  Under 
Alexander  YIL,  some  affiont  to  the  French  ambas- 
sador brought  Lewis's  forces  into  Italy,  with  the 
result  that  the  pontiff  signed  a  most  humiliating 
peace  at  Pisa  in  1664.  Clement  X.,  1670,  complained 
repeatedly  of  Lewis's  impious  use  of  the  regale. 
When  his  reforming  successor,  Innocent  XL,  abetted 
two  French  bishops  who  had  refused  to  receive  Crown 
nominees  to  canonries,  Lewis  XIV.  qualified  his  be- 
lief in  Papal  infallibility  by  the  celebrated  assertion 

11 


1G2      MAXUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

of  the  Gallican  Liberties,  1682.  The  French  divines 
were  convened  at  Paris  to  confirm  these  four  pro- 
positions :  (1)  Popes  may  not  depose  kings,  absolve 
subjects  from  allegiance,  or  interfere  with  temporal 
jurisdiction.  (2)  General  Councils  are  superior  in 
authority  to  Popes.  (3)  The  rules  and  customs  that 
have  been  received  in  the  Gallican  Church  are  to 
be  preserved  inviolate.  (4)  Papal  decisions  are  only 
infallible  when  they  have  received  the  consent  and 
approbation  of  the  Church.  Vainly  did  Innocent  and 
Alexander  YIII.  fulminate  against  these  Articles,  and 
retaliate  by  refusing  pall  and  investiture  to  bishops 
of  Lewis's  nomination.  The  upright  Innocent  XII. 
at  last  effected  a  compromise  on  the  matters  at  issue, 
and  Lewis  consented  to  withdiaw  the  Gallican 
Articles  in  1692.  This  struggle  had  the  effect  of 
emphasizing  the  ancient  French  claim  to  indepen- 
dence of  Rome,  but  the  Church  only  experienced 
a  change  of  masters.  Fenelon's  words  are  a  true 
account  of  the  Gallican  attitude  for  the  next  hundied 
years.  "  In  practice  the  King  of  France  is  more  the 
head  of  the  Church  than  the  Pope.  Liberty  towards 
the  Pope — servitude  towards  the  King." 

The  Lutheran  bodies   after   the  Treaty  of   West- 
phalia continued  free  from    external  mo- 
CaUxtus:the  lestation.      The   most   striking   incidents 
le  IS  s.      .^  their  history  at  this  time  were  the  rise 
of  two  parties,  somewhat  resembling  the  Broad  Church 
and  Evangelical  schools  of  the  later  English  Church. 
Calixtus  of  Sleswick,  a  learned  theologian,  was  fired 
with  the  hope  of  substituting  the  reign  of  charity  for 
that  of  dogma.     His  endeavour  to  introduce  a  system 


SEVENTEEXTH  CENTURY.  163 

of  mutual  toleration  in  lieu  of  the  narrow  sectarian- 
ism of  the  age  was  premature  and  unsuccessful.  The 
conference  at  Thorn,  1645,  for  composing  the  dif- 
ferences of  the  Lutherans  and  Reformed  bodies,  only- 
fostered  fresh  animosities,  and  Calixtus  died  in  1656, 
branded  with  Romanism,  infidelity,  etc.  His  enemies 
tried  after  his  death  to  make  renunciation  of  "  Calix- 
tianism  "  a  test  of  Lutheran  orthodoxy.  More  con- 
spicuous and  longer  lived  was  the  Pietist  movement 
headed  by  Spener,  Franck,  and  Schade.  The  Pietists 
took  exception  to  the  dry  dogmatic  character  of 
Lutheran  Christianity.  Religion  of  the  heart,  they 
declared,  had  given  place  to  that  of  the  head,  prayer 
to  disputation.  Spener  was  chief  pastor  at  Frank - 
fort-on-Maine.  In  1675  he  published  his  "  Pia  Desi- 
deria,"  urging  the  general  need  of  reform  in  the  conduct 
of  religious  teaching.  The  agencies  to  which  he  had 
recourse  were  prayer  meetings,  and  Biblical  lectures, 
the  so-called  "  collegia  pietatis."  These  institutions 
incurred  obloquy  successively  at  Frankfort,  Leipsic, 
and  Berlin,  as  promoting  disorder  and  fanaticism. 
Nevertheless  they  spread  rapidly  throughout  Ger- 
many. Rational  exegesis  of  course  succumbed  be- 
fore  the  pretentions  of  unlettered  spiritual  guides, 
and  the  fatal  principle  now  struck  root  that  the  Bible 
is  to  be  interpreted  by  modes  inadmissible  in  other 
literature.  Eventually  Halle  became  the  centre  of 
the  Pietist  movement,  and  here  a  university  was 
founded  for  the  pursuit  of  its  ciuasi-mystic  theology. 
The  Wittenberg  theologians  taxed  Spener  with 
heterodoxy,  but  he  refuted  this  charge  in  his  " Tiue 
Agreement  with  the  Confession  of  Augsburg."    Never- 


164     MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

thele-s,  the  movement  was  generally  regarded  as 
pernicious.  The  fact  that  severe  laws  were  passed 
against  the  Pietists  in  many  principalities  argues  that 
their  system  was  subversive  of  public  order,  if  not 
of  moral  restraints.  Its  best  work  was  done  by 
Franck,  whose  Volksschulen  were  the  first  German 
organization  for  purposes  of  public  education. 
In  the  next  century  the  visionary  or  fantastical 
traits  of  Pietism  are  represented  by  Count  Zin- 
zendorf,  the  anarchical  or  Puritan  by  Arnold  and 
Dippel. 

Here  we  may  conveniently  notice  the  speculative 
Pietism  of  the  Dutch   Spinoza,   h.  1632, 

Spinoza  s  , 

speculative  cl.  1677.  Spinoza,  after  breaking  the 
eosop  y.  ][)Q^^j^(^j,  Qf  Jewish  orthodoxy  and  incur- 
ring expulsion  from  the  synagogue,  effected  a  combin- 
ation of  Christian  ethics  w^th  the  metaphysics  of 
Descartes,  which,  though  at  first  banned  throughout 
Europe,  has  won  admiration  for  its  logical  precision 
and  the  loftiness  of  its  spiritual  aspirations.  Spi- 
noza's most  noted  works  are  the  "  Tractatus  "  and  the 
''  Ethica."  The  former  differentiates  the  provinces 
of  theology  and  philosophy,  attacks  sacerdotalism  as 
socially  injurious,  and  expounds  the  Bible  in  a  ration- 
alistic method.  The  *'  Ethica  "  exhibits  the  doctrines 
accepted  by  this  ^'  Euclid  of  metaphysicians "  in 
mathematical  form.  Spinoza,  though  described  by 
Novalis  as  a  "  God-mtoxicated  man,"  drew  on  himself 
charges  of  Pantheism,  even  of  Atheism,  by  these 
writings.  His  true  character  is  rather  that  of  a 
Theosophist.  God  in  Spinoza's  system  is  the  identity 
of    the  natura  naturans  and  the    natura     naturata. 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY.  165 

The  Universe  is  "  the  Deity  passing  into  activity  but 
not  exhausted  by  the  act."  There  is  no  substance 
but  God.  The  human  mind  is  part  of  the  infinite 
intellect  of  God. 

The  "  Reformed  "  bodies  of  the  Continent  continued 
to  be  perturbed  by  the  various  develop- 

r.    ,-,       P  -11  ,  n        The  Calvinistic* 

ments  or  the  iree-will  controversy.      Gro-bodies.-Grotiua 

treatment  of 


tius,     who    was     so    prominent    on    the    '^s^rhTt^e. 

Revocation  o 
Edict  of  Nantes. 


Arminian   side,  is  conspicuous  as   antici-  i^evocation  of 


pating  the  dawn  of  true  Biblical  exegesis 
in  his  treatment  of  the  Old  Testament.  His  efforts 
to  recommend  a  rational  treatment  of  Scripture  and 
define  the  limits  of  prophecy  were  hotly  opposed 
by  the  school  of  Cocceius,  which  attached  a  mystical 
significance  to  every  line  of  the  Bible.  Among  the 
ablest  of  Grotius'  disciples  was  Yoet.  The  most 
important  incident  in  the  political  history  of  the 
Reformed  Churches  was  Lewis  XIV. 's  fatal  revocation 
of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  1685.  Under  Henry  IV.  the 
French  Reformed  had  maintained  the  position  of  a 
petty  commonwealth  possessing  towns,  castles,  and 
troops.  By  the  policy  of  Richelieu  they  were  reduced 
to  dependence,  and  henceforward  it  was  attempted 
to  recover  them  to  Romanism  by  argument  and 
coercion.  At  last  by  the  advice  of  the  Jesuits, 
Lewis  XIV.  deprived  them  of  civic  status  by  revoking 
the  Edict  of  1598,  and  some  500,000  French  subjects 
were  thus  driven  to  England,  Holland,  and  America. 
A  little  later  the  ancient  sect  of  Waldenses,  in  th.e 
valleys  of  Piedmont,  which  had  formed  an  alliance 
with  the  Calvinistic  Protestants,  underwent  a  cruel 
persecution  (1686 — 1696). 


IGG     MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

The   most  flouiisliing  scion  of   Calvinistic  CLristi- 
anity  at  the  end  of  the  centuiy  was  the 

Triumph  of        ^ .  '' 

the  Calvinistic  Kiik  of  Scotland,  whose  fortunes  we  shall 
Scotland.      tiJicG  befoie  depicting  those  of  the  English 
KirkYnfhia'  Church.       We   have   noticed   James   I.'s 
century.      desire   to   introduce  the  English   Episco- 
palian system  into  Scotland.    In  1606  the  Parliament 
at  Perth  had    consented    to   restore    "  the  state  of 
bishops  with  all  its  ancient  rents  and  privileges."    But 
the  consecration    of    the  prelates  was    not    provided 
for    till   1610,   when    Spottiswood  of    Glasgow^    went 
with  two  other  bishops  to  London,  to  be  consecrated 
per   salt  am,    without  receiving    deacon's    and   priest's 
orders.     It  may  be  doubted  whether  the  Scotch  would 
have  ever  heartily  accepted  the  Episcopalian  regime. 
But  that  it  drew   on  itself  a  speedy  and  long-lived 
detestation  was  due  to  the  same  causes  that  w^recked 
the  English  Church  in   1642.     The  Stuart  policy  of 
over-riding  the  clergy   by  a  strained  use  of    "  royal 
supremacy  "  reached  its  fatal  climax  in  Scotland  in 
1636.     Before  this,  the  General  Assembly  had  been 
so  far  humoured  that  it  passed  (by  86  votes  against 
49)    the   Eive  Articles  of    Perth,    which    authorized 
kneeling    at    the    Eucharist,    private  communion    of 
the  sick,  private   baptism  of  the  sick,   confirmation, 
and  observance  of  the  great  Christian  festivals  (1618). 
It  was  proposed  at  the  same  time  to  prepare  a  Scotch 
Prayer  Book  similar  to  that  of  England,  to  supersede 
the  "  Book  of   Common  Order"  bequeathed  by  Knox. 
But  probably  no  attempts    were   made  to    put   this 
scheme    into    execution.       There    is    no   proof    that 
Scotland   had    warmed    tow^ards   the   Anglo- Catholic 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY.  167 

ideal,  when  Charles,  in  1633,  inflicted  on  the  northern 
Church  a  code  of  canons  by  royal  authority.  These 
canons  astonished  the  Scotch  by  the  introduction  of 
the  eucharistic  altar  at  the  east  end  of  the  church, 
and  the  clerical  deacon  ;  they  ignored  "  kirk  sessions," 
and  all  other  machinery  of  self-government ;  they 
even  prohibited  extempore  prayer  and  private  re- 
ligious meetings.  When  this  stroke  of  autocracy 
was  followed,  in  1636,  by  the  authorization  of  a 
Prayer  Book  on  the  English  model,  prepared  by  only 
two  Scotch  bishops  and  revised  by  the  hated  Laud, 
Scotland  rose  in  a  frenzy  of  fanaticism.  Not  only  was 
the  new  apparatus  of  Liturgy  and  Canons  swept  away, 
all  ecclesiastical  procedure  since  1606  was  revoked, 
and  the  Presbyterian  system  of  1592  re-established. 
The  bishops  were  tried,  deposed,  and  excommunicated, 
on  charges  of  "  Arminianism,  popery,  whoring,  adul- 
tery, incest,"  etc.,  1638.  Even  the  private  use  of 
the  Liturgy  was  proscribed  by  the  severest  penalties. 
In  the  period  of  disorder  ensuing,  the  General 
Assembly  became  practically  the  governing  body  of 
Scotland.  It  received  the  gratulations  of  the  English 
Parliament  in  1643,  and  forthwith  became  inflated 
with  a  project  for  the  "  reformation  of  religion  in 
England  and  Ireland,  and  the  extirpation  of  popery, 
prelacy,  superstition,  and  schism."  These  high  aims 
were  embodied  in  a  Solemn  League  and  Covenant, 
and  were  for  a  time  countenanced  by  the  English 
Parliament,  the  Westminster  Assembly  of  1643 
being  summoned  to  effect  ''  a  nearer  agreement  with 
the  Church  of  Scotland,"  and  being  attended  by 
Scotch   commissioners.      The  ''  Westminster   Confes- 


168      MAMMAL   OF  CUURCII  lUSTORY. 

sion,"  tliongh  short-lived  in  England,  became  the 
boast  of  the  Scotcli  Church,  and  appears  to  deserve 
rank  at  the  head  of  the  Calvinistic  formularies.  The 
Westminster  "  Directory  for  Public  Worship "  was 
also  adopted  in  Scotland  for  liturgical  purposes  in 
lieu  of  Knox's  "  Common  Order." 

The  Eestoration  of  Charles  II.  brought  renewed, 
more  politic,  but  utterly  unsuccessful  attempts  to 
re-establish  Episcopacy.  A  wide  latitude  was  to  be 
accorded  in  the  conduct  of  the  services.  The  only 
manifestation  of  tyranny  was  the  deprivation  of  some 
250  ministers  who  refused  to  be  instituted  by  the  new 
bishops.  But  the  murder  of  Archbishop  Sharp  showed 
how  deeply  the  changes  were  resented,  and  the  Episco- 
palian cause  was  soon  opposed  by  a  wild  fanaticism, 
which  was  humoured  by  the  Romanist  James  II.  and 
allowed  to  triumph  by  the  Protestant  William  III. 
The  Orange  sovereign  restored  the  ecclesiastical  status 
of  1660,  and  not  only  legalized  the  "rabbling  of  the 
curates,"  but  persecuted  in  Scotland  the  religion  of 
which  he  was  the  ostensible  supporter  in  England. 
All  Scotch  Episcopalians  were  called  upon  to  acknow- 
the  new  dynasty  as  reigning  de  jure  as  well  as  de  facto 
The  private  exercise  of  their  religion  was  punished  by 
the  Scotch  Privy  Council,  and  in  1695  the  "  outed 
ministers"  were  forbidden  to  marry  or  baptize  on 
pain  of  imprisonment.  The  persecution  of  Episco- 
palians did  not  cease  with  this  century.  Queen  Anne's 
reign  indeed  brought  a  respite,  but  from  1714  to  1792 
the  only  tolerated  representative  of  Scotch  Christianity 
was  the  Presbyterian  Establishment. 

We  now  rotice  the  singular  fluctuations  of  fortune 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY.  160 

experienced  in  this  century  by  the  English  Church. 
James  I.,  though  inclined  to  Scotch  Cal-  rphe  English 
vinism,  was  well  content  to  accept  an  ja^e^i^'^and 
ecclesiastical  system  in  which  the  dignity  Charles  i. 
of  the  sovereign  w^as  recognised,  and  endeavoured 
as  we  have  shown,  to  restore  episcopacy  to  his 
native  land.  The  Church  assumed  in  this  reign 
that  attitude  of  deference  to  absolutist  principles 
which  was  to  cost  it  so  dear  under  Charles  I.  In 
the  ecclesiastical  procedure  of  James,  synodical 
sanction  was  ignored,  or  only  sought  ex  j^ost  facto. 
The  most  notable  events  are  the  Hampton  Court 
Conference  of  1603,  which  terminated  in  the  dis- 
comfiture of  the  Puritan  party  ;  the  publication  of 
a  Prayer  Book  (1604),  which  besides  minor  innova- 
tions, included  Dr.  Overall's  Catechism  on  the  Sacra- 
ments ;  and  the  issue  of  the  justly  celebrated  Bible 
Translation  of  1611.  James'  successor  was  a  pro- 
nounced Anglo-Catholic,  devoid  of  tolerance  and 
tact.  The  principles  of  conformity  and  absolutism 
were  pushed  by  Charles  and  his  vigorous  primate 
Laud,  to  the  ruin  of  both  Church  and  throne. 
Parliament  at  once  became  a  centre  of  hostility 
to  the  Anglican  system,  and  men  learnt  to  associate 
the  idea  of  personal  liberty  with  that  of  Puritanism. 
On  one  side  we  find  clerical  advocates  of  royal 
absolutism,  such  as  Mainwaring  and  Montague, 
promoted  to  Bishoprics,  in  defiance  of  popular 
sentiment.  On  the  other  we  find  the  Commons 
denouncing  the  Church  as  a  hotbed  of  "  Armin- 
ianism,"  and  passing  a  Bill  asserting  the  Calvinistic 
interpretation    of    the   Thirty-nine    Articles.     When 


170      JIAXCAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY, 

Charles,  harassed  by  the  Opposition  to  his  irregular 
methods  of  taxation,  suspended  Parliament  altogether 
(1629-40),  Laud  assumed  the  role  of  a  royal  vicar- 
general  for  ecclesiastical  affairs.  Heligious  innovations 
were  now  introduced,  which,  however  commendable 
their  cliaracter,  were  necessarily  dispaiaged  by 
the  precipitate,  informal,  and  harsh  methods  used 
in  their  enforcement.  Among  these  high-handed 
measures,  we  notice  the  limitations  on  the  office  of 
preacher  or  lecturer ;  the  suppression  of  the  Puritan 
feoffees  of  St.  Antholin's ;  the  conversion  of  the 
chancel-tables  into  altars  placed  eastwards ;  the  with- 
drawal of  the  toleration  hitherto  accorded  to  the 
worship  of  foreign  Protestants ;  and  the  outrageous 
demand  that  the  clergy  should  endorse  from  the 
pulpit  the  view  of  the  Sunday  question  favoured  in 
King  James'  Book  of  Sports.  The  attempt  to 
enforce  a  Liturgy  on  Scotland  has  been  already 
mentioned.  The  consequent  disturbance  in  the  north 
compelled  Charles  to  summon  a  Parliament,  and  this 
body  wreaked  a  cruel  vengeance  on  the  clergy  for 
the  misgovernment  of  the  King  and  the  Primate. 
A  "  visitation  of  Churches,"  ordered  by  the  Commons 
in  1641,  resulted  in  acts  of  vandalism  which  have 
left  their  traces  on  our  noblest  English  fanes.  The 
bishops  were  harried  and  imprisoned  to  secure  an 
excuse  for  decreeing  their  expulsion  from  the  House 
of  Lords.  The  Poot  and  Branch  Bill  followed 
(1642),  abolishing  episcopacy.  In  1643  the  West- 
minster Assembly  was  summoned  to  devise  a  new 
ecclesiastical  system  on  a  Presbyterian  basis.  The 
clerical   representatives  for  each  county  were  nomin- 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY.  171 

ated  by  Parliament  itself,  and  as  the  Episcopalian 
clergy  almost  unanimously  declined  attendance,  the 
fautors  of  Presbyterianism  were  only  resisted  by  the 
Independent  and  Eras.tian  sections.  It  was  ordered 
afc  this  time  that  the  "  Covenant  "  of  Scotland  should 
be  read  in  all  churches,  and  sworn  to  by  all  adults. 
The  Westminster  Directory  was  installed  in  the 
place  of  the  Prayer  Book  in  1644  :  next  year  the 
use  of  the  latter  was  penalized.  Laud  was  beheaded- 
His  mismanagement  brought  imprisonment,  expul- 
sion or  ruin  upon  some  7000  clergy,  whose  only  offence 
was  excess  of  loyalty  to  the  throne  and  the  Epis- 
copalian system.  But  though  the  livings  were  mostly 
usurped  by  Presbyterians,  the  nation  was  in  no 
humour  to  accept  the  high  ecclesiastical  pretensions 
of  the  Scotch  Kirk,  or  to  establish  consistories  on 
the  Calvinistic  model.  To  the  autocratic  Cromwell 
the  Scotch  system  was  really  scarcely  less  repulsive 
than  the  one  he  had  overthrown.  Presbyteries  were 
indeed  established  in  London ;  and  Lancashire  and 
Shropshire  accepted  the  full  Calvinistic  organization 
- — Bolton  becoming  known  as  the  "  English  Geneva." 
But  Presbyterianism  had  failed  to  strike  root  in 
England  before  the  execution  of  the  King  in  1649. 
This  event  alienated  the  Protestants  of  Scotland  and 
Ireland  from  the  Parliamentary  cause.  The  Irish 
Presbyterians  themselves  soon  incurred  persecution 
at  the  hands  of  Cromwell's  Independents,  and  their 
co-religionists  in  England  had  enough  to  do  to  keep 
the  livings  they  had  invaded.  The  test  henceforward 
forced  upon  the  Anglican  clergy  instead  of  the 
hateful  Covenant  was  a  political  one — the  "  Engage- 


172      MAXUAL   OF  CHCRCIT  HISTORY. 

ment,"  repudicating  the    functions   of   the  King  and 

House  of  Lords. 

England  was  for  the  next  eleven  years  a  centre  of 
^  ,.  .  relictions  discord.     Of  the  Protestant  sects 

Religious  ° 

bodies        that  now   predominated    some   still  com- 

Common wealth,  prise  numerous  adherents  both  in  England 

^"fiapSstT''  ^^^  ^^  America.     The   rise  and  history 

Quakers,      of  these  may  here  be  conveniently  dealt 

with. 

The  Tn(lej-)evden1s. — The  originator  of  this  sect  was  Robert  Brown, 
a  Puritan  Norfolk  clergyman.  Brown  anticipated  the  "Libellers  " 
of  Elizabeth's  reign  by  scurrilous  attacks  on  the  Anglican  system, 
1570-80.  He  fled  from  England  only  to  get  into  fresh  trouble  in 
Holland  and  Scotland,  and  eventually  came  home  to  make  his 
peace  with  the  Church,  and  die  in  the  enjoyment  of  a  living.  His 
principles  survived  his  recantation,  and  the  Brownist  or  Inde- 
pendent system  was  further  developed  at  Leyden  by  another 
refugee,  named  John  Robinson,  in  1610.  The  first  regularly  con- 
stituted Independent  congregation  in  England  was  planted  by 
Robinson's  disciple,  Henry  Jacob,  in  1(316.  The  peculiar  feature 
in  this  system  is  that  each  congregation  is  a  law  to  itself.  The 
Episcopalian  gradations  of  orders  and  the  Presbyterian  gradations 
of  judicial  assemblies  are  alike  discarded.  The  ancient  theory  of 
a  Church  co-extensive  with  the  nation  gives  place  to  one  of 
innumerable  isolated  centres  of  religious  life.  The  theology  of 
the  Independents  is  of  a  Calvinistic  hue,  but  is  necessarily  of  an 
elastic  or  negative  character.  It  not  only  finds  all  things  neces- 
sary to  salvation  in  the  N.  T.,  but  breaks  the  continuity  of 
religious  history  by  a  sweeping  repudiation  of  all  Fathers, 
traditions,  councils,  canons,  and  creeds.  The  officials  are  two — 
"  pastors,"  charged  with  the  work  of  preaching  and  praying,  and 
''  deacons,"  on  whom  devolves  the  managem-'ut  of  affairs  in  each 
congregation.  The  pastoral  office  is  regarded  as  the  counterpart 
of  the  prophetic  function  in  the  0.  T.  Its  occupant  is  called 
to  his  work  b}^  the  voice  of  the  individual  congregation.  The 
Independent  system  was  planted  in  America  by  the  emigrants 
of  James'  and  Charles'  reign.  Its  fautors  there  perpetrated  great 
cruelties  on  the  Romanist  and  Quaker  colonists,  and  the  Inde- 
pendent theory  of  "  the  equal  concern  of  every  man  in  religion  " 
was  found  not  a  whit  more  favourable  to  relisrious  tolerance  than 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY.  173 

sacerdotal  exdusiveness.  The  ground  thus  preoccupied  has  not  yet 
been  recovered  by  Anglican  agencies,  and  the  Independents  are 
numerically  the  largest  religious  body  in  the  United  States.  In 
England  they  rank  second  of  the  dissenting  sects  in  point  of 
numbers.  The  most  noted  Independent  writers  are  Dr.  Watts, 
Dr.  Doddridge,  and  Dr.  Pye  Smith.  For  purposes  of  association, 
County  Unions  and  a  Central  Congregational  Union  have  been 
formed  in  modern  times. 

The  Baptists. — The  turbulent  Dutch  Anabaptists  of  the  sixteenth 
century  have  been  noticed.  About  1550  a  system  of  more  rational 
character,  was  bestowed  on  this  sect  by  Meuno,  once  a  Roman 
priest.  Menno  modified  the  Anabaptist  theories  regarding  the 
millennium,  the  inadmissibility  of  magistrates  in  Christian  com- 
munities, the  prohibition  of  oaths,  and  the  uselessness  of  learning. 
The  peculiar  features  in  the  sect  are  its  denial  of  baptismal  grace, 
and  its  consequent  limitation  of  Christ's  visible  kingdom  to  such 
as  have  consciously  experienced  a  call.  The  Dutch  Baptists 
obtained  indulgence  from  William  of  Orange  in  1572,  an  1  gained 
full  toleration  in  1626.  In  England  the  sect  obtained  no  permanent 
footing  till  the  reign  of  James  I.  Its  theories  were  highlj-  offen- 
sive to  the  Presbyturians  of  the  CommonAvealth,  and  in  1648  a 
sentence  of  imprisonment  was  passed  on  all  who  should  disparage 
Infant  Baptism  or  insist  on  repetition  of  Baptism.  Like  other 
religious  bodies,  the  Baptists  were  embroiled  on  the  question  of 
the  Divine  decrees,  and  in  16G0  the  '•  General  Baptists,"  who 
maintained  the  Arminian  doctrine  that  Christ  died  for  all  men, 
broke  away  from  the  "  Particular  Baptists."  Another  and  earlier 
ramification  was  the  sect  of  Seventh  Day  Baptists,  who  insisted 
on  the  observance  of  Saturday  in  lieu  of  Sunday.  The  General  Bap- 
tists largelj^  lapsed  into  Socinianism,  and  the  Particular  Baptists 
are  now  regarded  as  representing  the  parent  stem,  which  has 
thrown  off  altogether  some  dozen  sectarian  ramifications.  Two  chief 
classes  of  Particular  Baptists  are  mentioned — the  Eree  Com- 
munionists  who  cede,  and  the  Close  Communiouists  who  refuse  the 
Holy  Communion  to  those  who  have  been  baptized  as  infants. 
The  system  of  government  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Independents, 
each  congregation  being  theoretically  complete  in  itself,  and 
independent  of  authority.  In  1832  an  association  of  Anabaptist 
bodies  Avas  formed  with  the  title  "  Baptist  Union."  This,  how- 
ever, has  no  power  of  interfering  with  individual  congregations. 

The  Quakers, — Friends,  or  Children  of  Light,  were  the  creation 
of  George  Fox,  a  visionary  shoemaker,  who  was  moved  to  inter- 
rupt the  public  services  with  rhapsodic  utterances  cir.  1647.     But 


174      MANUAL   OF  CUURCU  HISTORY. 

the  principles  of  the  sect  were  really  first  systematized  by  three 
educated  men,  Barclay,  Keith,  and  Fisher,  cii*.  1(160.  They  included 
a  mystic  or  transcendental  system,  starting  from  the  same  point 
as  the  contemporary  Quietism  of  the  Catholic  Molinos.  Religion 
consists  in  turning  the  mind  from  external  oV)jects.  The  Bible 
is  but  a  mute  guide  pointing  to  the  living  Master  resident  in  the 
soul.  This  internal  Teacher  can  convert  even  those  ignorant  of 
revelation,  and  the  heathen  can  thus  "carry  Christ''  in  their 
hearts.  Tlie  aversion  of  the  Quakers  to  fixed  ceremonial  and  even 
social  conventionalities  is  in  harmony  with  this  disparagement 
of  all  objective  methods.  In  the  spiritual  system  of  this  body  the 
sacraments  have  no  place.  There  is  no  ministerial  system  ;  the 
preacher  is  the  person  who  feels  himself  at  the  moment  inspired 
to  speak.  The  enlightened  are  enabled,  as  in  other  Quietist 
systems,  to  attain  a  state  of  moral  perfection.  The  Quakers 
incurred  much  hostility  in  Cromwell's  time,  both  for  repudiation 
of  secular  ordinances  and  for  theological  laxity.  For  many  years 
those  who  emigrated  to  America  were  barbarously  persecuted  by 
the  dominant  Independent  body.  Under  Charles  II.  the  Quakers 
were  frequently  imprisoned  for  their  conscientious  aversion  to  oaths, 
tithe-payment,  and  military  service.  Their  leader,  William  Penn, 
obtained,  however,  in  1680,  a  grant  of  an  American  province 
in  reward  for  his  father's  services.  Penn  found  favour  with  the 
intriguing  James  II.,  who  employed  him  in  important  state 
affairs,  and  extended  toleration  to  his  followers.  William  III. 
included  the  Quakers  in  his  cession  of  religious  indulgence,  and 
henceforward  they  suffered  only  in  the  New  World.  A  split  was 
caused  in  this  sect  in  1695  by  Keith's  attributing  to  our  Saviour 
a  twofold  human  nature.  The  Quakers  have  largely  aided  the 
cause  of  philanthropy  and  tolerance.  Their  members  have  always 
devoted  themselves  chiefly  to  commercial  pursuits,  and  here  their 
system  of  brotherly  co-operation  has  ensured  them  conspicuous 
success.  The  extreme  opinions  and  peculiar  practices  of  this,  as 
of  other  religious  bodies,  have  vanished  in  the  light  of  an  intel- 
lectual age.  In  parting  with  these,  however,  the  Quakers  have 
largely  forfeited  their  popularity  with  the  lower  orders. 

The  death  of  the  Protector  was  followed  by  a  re- 
suscitation of  the  Long  Parliament,  and  a 
Church  at  the  temporary  revival  of  Presbyter ianism,  1658. 
Soon,    however,    it  became   impossible  to 
misinterpret    England's  wish   for    the  reinstatement 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY.  175 

of  Chnrch  and  King.  Charles,  by  Monk's  assistance, 
was  restored  to  a  realm  sickened  of  sectarianism 
and  anarchy.  The  new  Parliament  hastened  to 
strengthen  the  Church  with  an  Act  of  Uniformity 
even  before  the  Savoy  Conference  had  finished  its 
revisions.  The  hopes  that  were  largely  entertained 
that  this  assemblage  would  set  some  limitations  on 
episcopal  autocracy  proved  barren.  The  moderate 
party  were  cheated  of  the  promises  held  out  in 
Charles'  "  Worcester  House  Declaration,"  and  the 
topic  of  sy nodical  organisation  was  laid  aside  for 
another  two  hundred  years.  Those  who  demanded 
''  the  true  primitive  presidency  in  the  Church  with 
a  due  mixture  of  presbyters  "  in  lieu  of  the  autocratic 
episcopate  of  later  times,  were  thus  largely  alienated 
from  the  Anglican  system.  A  committee  appointed 
by  the  Savoy  Conference  now  effected  a  final  revision 
of  the  Liturgy.  The  changes,  though  not  numerous, 
were  significant  as  emphasizing  the  doctrinal  position 
of  the  Anglican  Church  in  regard  to  sacraments. 
According  to  the  Act  of  Uniformity  the  new  Prayer 
Book  was  to  be  accepted  by  all  incumbents  before 
Bartholomew's  Day,  1662.  This  date  marks  the 
ejection  of  some  1,800  non-conforming  incumbents 
from  the  livings  they  had  invaded.  The  legitimate 
possessors  had  suffered  so  much  more  severely  in 
1643-58  that  these  persons  (w^ho  w^ere  often  illiterate 
tradesmen  and  artizans)  obtained  little  sympathy  with 
the  public. 

The  tortuous  ecclesiastical  policy  of  Charles  II.  who, 
if  he  had  any  religion,  was  a  Romanist,  need  not  be 
traced  out.      The  true  key  to  the  procedure  of  this 


176      MAXUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

and  tlie   following  reign    may  be   found    in    French 
»,,.  r,^     ^     history.     Charles  and  James  imitated  their 

The  Church  •' 

under  Bourbon  ancestor  Henry  IV.  in  seeking  to 
sustain  themselves  against  the  Church  by 
earning  the  gratitude  of  the  sects.  The  antagonism 
of  the  Commons  to  the  Crown  therefore  now  expresses 
itself  in  Acts  hostile  to  Dissent.  Svich  were  the 
Conventicle  Act,  1664,  and  the  Five  Mile  Act,  1665. 
Charles'  attempt  to  issue  a  Declaration  of  Indul- 
gence in  1672  was  quietly  over-ridden  by  the  Com- 
mons, which,  suspecting  the  true  intention  of  such 
proposals,  proceeded  to  pass  statutes  for  repressing 
Komanism.  The  Test  Act  of  1673,  which  was  not 
abrogated  till  modern  times,  obliged  all  civil  and 
military  officers  to  disown  the  doctrine  of  transub- 
stantiation,  and  acknowledge  the  king's  ecclesiastical 
supremacy.  The  close  of  the  reign  was  marked  by 
the  outburst  or  invention  of  politico-religious  plots, 
and  the  liberties  of  Komanist  subjects  were  now 
further  curtailed. 

James   II.,  a  pronounced   Romanist,   came   to  the 

throne,    against    the    general    wish,    and 

under  James  adopted   his  brother's  artifice  of  affecting 

lutionandthe  conccrD  for  the  Dissentcrs.     His  first  pro- 

Nonjuror       ceediug  was  to  order  the  release  of  the 

Komanists  and  Quakers  imprisoned  for  refusing  the 

oath  of  supremacy.     Singularly  little  sympathy  was 

shown  by  the  Pope  for  the  Romanizing  policy  which 

brought  about  the  English  Revolution.     Innocent  XI. 

doubtless  disliked  the  Stuart  doctrine  of  absolutism. 

He  w^as  also  at  issue  with  James'  staunch  ally,  Lewis 

XIY.,  on  the  subject  of   the  Gallican  liberties.     We 


SEVENTEEJS'TH  CENTURY.  177 

notice  only  the  salient  features  in  the  procedure  of 
16>r)-9.  Disregarding  the  Test  Act,  James  admitted 
Romanists  to  civil,  military,  even  to  ecclesiastical 
offices.  The  Benedictines  were  established  at  St. 
James',  the  Jesuits  at  the  Savoy,  the  Franciscans  at 
Lincoln's  Inn.  Parker,  a  Romanist  at  heart,  ^\as  made 
Bishop  of  Oxford.  When  Dr.  Sharp  preached  against 
Romanism  at  St.  Giles,  his  diocesan,  Compton,  was 
ordei-ed  to  proceed  against  him,  and  for  refusing  was 
suspended  by  a  High  Commission  Court.  The  Cam- 
bridge Vice-chancellor  was  dethroned  for  refusing  to 
remit  the  oath  of  supremacy  in  favour  of  a  Bene- 
dictine monk  sent  up  by  James  for  an  M.A.  degree. 
The  fellows  of  Magdalene,  Oxford,  were  ejected  for 
declining  to  elect  a  disreputable  Romanist  as  their 
President,  and  their  college  was  made  a  Roman  semi- 
nary. Similar  attempts  were  made  to  tune  the 
municipal  corporations  and  the  lord-lieutenancies  to 
the  King's  darling  aim.  The  criisis  came  when  James 
ordered  his  Declaration  of  Indulgence  to  all  religions 
to  be  read  in  every  church.  Seven  bishops  incurred 
imprisonment  for  petitioning  against  this  mandate 
Their  trial  and  triumphant  acquittal  was  immediately 
succeeded  by  the  petition  to  William  of  Orange.  But 
the  prelates,  though  ready  to  accept  William  as 
Regent,  were  unwilling  to  go  the  length  of  deposing 
the  Stuart  sovereign.  The  Revolution  therefor 
brought  fresh  trouble  on  their  heads.  Only  two 
bishops  consented  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to 
W^illiam.  The  others  were  deprived  together  with 
some  400  nonjuring  incumbents.  A  new  line  of 
bishops  was  consecrated  by  the  nonjuror  prelates  in 

12 


178     MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

1G94,  and  a  schism,  in  wliich  many  High  Churchmen 
oined,  was  kept  alive  till  the  end  of  the  next  cen- 
tury. Sancroft,  Ken,  Leslie,  Hickes,  Dodwell,  and 
Nelson  are  the  most  noted  names  in  the  nonjuror 
party. 

The    new    sovereign    was    a    Presbyterian.     Save 

where,  as  in  Scotland,  political  exigencies 
under  William  interfered,  his  policy  was  one  of  religious 

toleration.  Nonconformists  were  exempted 
by  the  Bill  of  1689  from  other  tests  than  the  oath  of 
supremacy  and  a  repudiation  of  the  doctrine  of  tran- 
substantiation.  Dissenting  ministers  being,  however, 
compelled  to  sign  an  expurgated  edition  of  the  39 
Articles.  A  Bill  was  even  proposed,  capacitating 
Dissenters  for  receiving  Orders,  on  declaring  a  general 
approval  of  the  Anglican  doctrine,  worship,  and 
government.  The  High  Church  party  was  rendered 
unpopular  by  its  partiality  for  the  Jacobite  cause. 
Utter  disregard  for  its  proclivities  was  shown  by 
Tillotson  in  his  scheme  for  revising  the  Prayer  Book, 
and  in  his  high-handed  dealings  with  Convocation. 
This  body  only  secured  a  grudging  permission  to  meet 
in  1701,  and  its  sessions  were  preluded  by  violent 
controversy.  Many  years  were  to  pass  before  the 
English  Church,  hampered  by  the  suspicions  of  sove- 
reigns and  Parliaments,  and  the  pedantry  of  statutes, 
could  attempt  to  introduce  her  doctrine  and  organiza- 
tion among  the  English  settlers  of  the  New  World. 
The  missionary  and  educational  spirit,  however,  was 
not  dormant,  and  this  reign  witnessed  the  foundation 
of  the  two  great  Societies  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel  and  of  Christian  Knowledge. 


SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY.  179 

This  age  was  fruitful  in  great  English  divines. 
The  episcopate  of  Charles  II.  included 
the  learned  Jeremy  Taylor ;  Pearson,-  the  churchmfn^of 
author  of  the  treatise  on  the  Creed;  ^m^ZnTv^' 
Walton,  the  editor  of  the  Polyglot  Bible ;  agencies. 
Cosin,  the  liturgiologist ;  and  G-auden,  the  reputed 
author  of  the  Eikon  Basilike.  Among  the  clergy  were 
South  and  Barrow ;  also  Bull,  whose  "  Defensio 
Pidei  Nicense,"  1685,  elicited  a  special  vote  of  thanks 
from  Bossuet  and  the  French  bishops.  Cambridge 
gave  birth  to  the  distinguished  group  known  as  the 
"  Platonists,"  who  apparently  did  more  to  stem  the  in- 
fidelity and  profligacy  which  mark  this  age  than  the 
apologists  and  dogmatists  above  named.  Cud  worth, 
author  of  the  "  True  Intellectual  System  of  the 
Universe,"  is  specially  noticeable,  as  countering  the 
narrow  materialism  of  the  necessitarian  Hobbes. 
Other  Cambridge  Platonists  were  Henry  More, 
Whichcote,  Gale,  and  Norris.  The  Platonists 
were  spiritually  minded  scholars,  who  steered  a 
middle  course  between  the  enthusiasm  of  the  mystics 
and  the  cold  rationalism  of  the  rising  latitudinarian 
school.  Of  the  latter,  Chillingworth,  author  of  the 
aphorism  "the  Bible  only  the  religion  of  Protestants,'' 
was  unintentionally  the  founder.  The  assault  on 
indiscriminating  faith  finally  engendered  the  so-called 
"  Deism,"  which  attained  such  popularity  in  the 
18th  century.  At  present  it  filled  the  high 
places  of  the  Church  with  men  whose  rational  pietism 
sometimes  perilously  resembled  a  frigid  indifference 
to  spiritual  things.  The  typical  divines  of  the  lati- 
tudinarian school  are  Burnet,  Patrick,  Tillotson,  and 


180       MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

Tenison,  th-e  two  latter  successively  (1G91-95)  Arch- 
bishops of  Canterbury. 

The  Eastern  Church  is  noticeable  in  connection 
Relations  of  With  Urban  VIII. 's  attempts  to  close 
cSrch^with  ^^^®  ancient  schism.  Several  works  were 
Rome.  The   Written  at  this  time  by  Roman    divines, 

Greek  Church  _  •'  ' 

in  Russia,    to  show  how  trivial  the  differences  were 
which  kept  the  Oreeks,  Armenians,  and  Nestoriaus 
from  the  Communion  of  the  West.     Cyrillus  Lucaris 
how^ever,    the   learned    Patriarch    of    Constantinople, 
was  opposed  to  schemes  of  reunion,  and  in  fact  showed 
a  decided  leaning  to  the  pi-inciples  of  the  Reformed 
bodies.     The  hostility  of  the  Jesuits  was  thus  roused, 
and  eventually  brought  about  the  execution  of  this 
Patriarch    in      1638.       His     successor,    Cyrillus    of 
Berrhoea,  had  been  the  agent  of   the  Jesuits  in  his 
destruction,  and  would  fain  have  brought  the  Greeks 
to  the  Roman  obedience.     But  he  too  was  executed 
after  a  reign  of   little  more  than    a   year,  and  his 
successors  were  averse  to  schemes  of  reunion.     In  the 
Russian  Church  we  notice  the  schism  (cir.  1666)  of 
the  Isbraniki,  or  "  company  of  the  elect,"  pietists  who 
desired  ecclesiastical  reform  rather  than  any  doctrinal 
changes,  but  who  experienced  severe  persecutions  till 
the  time  of  Peter  the  Creat.     In  this  reign  the  ecclesi- 
astical system  of  Russia  was  altered  by  the  suppression 
of  the  Patriarchate,  and  the  absorption  of  its  powers 
by  the  Crown.      From  1700  to  1720  Peter  was  repre- 
sented in  the  Church  by  a  kind  of   Yicar-General ; 
henceforward  it  was  ruled  by  a  Holy  Legislative  Synod 
of  imperial  nominees,  at  the  head  of  whom  was  placed 
a  representative  of  the  Czar,  with  power  of  negativing 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY.  181 

the  Synod's  resolutions.  Peter  abolished  the  practice 
of  persecution,  and  though  he  took  care  to  check  the 
propagation  of  Romanism  in  Russia,  adopted  in  the 
main  the  principles  of  religious  toleration. 


CHAPTER  XV^ILL 

EIGHTEENTH      CENTURY. 

THIS     century    opens    with    the    pontificate    of 
Clement    XI.   (1700-21),  the    author   of   the 
fatal  "  Vineam  Domini  "  and  "  Unigeni- 
^ciement  xi^  ^^^g  M      The    dissensions     consequent     on 
Domini"  and  these     bulls     larfifelv    account     for     that 

TJnisenitus."  ,  . 

general  revolt  against  the  old  order 
which  shortly  infects  the  whole  Koraanist  w^orld, 
and  at  last  culminates  in  the  proscription  of  Chris- 
tianity by  the  National  Convention  of  France.  Both 
bulls  were  outcomes  of  the  Jansenist  controversy. 
The  prominent  phase  of  the  dispute  in  France  was 
now,  whether  the  last  sacraments  should  be  accorded 
to  such  ecclesiastics  as  had  refused  the  oath  that 
the  Five  Propositions  were  in  "  Augustinus."  The 
Sorbonne  had  at  first  espoused  the  side  of  leniency, 
but  had  changed  its  opinion  at  the  instance  of 
Bossuet.  The  leading  Jansenist  writers  were  con- 
demned to  imprisonment  or  exile,  and  the  Jesuit 
triumph  was  confirmed  by  the  Vineam  Domini,  which 
insisted  that  all  Christians  must  give  an  undoubting 
assent  to  the  Church's  decisions  on  matters  of  fact. 
The  demolition  of  Port  Pvoyal  followed,  1709.  But 
the  Jansenists  still  held  the  field  of  controversial 
literature.       The     second     bull     was    provoked     by 


EIGHTEENTH  CEXTURY.  183 

Quesnel,  already  famous  as  the  editor  of  a  French 
New  Testament  with  notes  of  a  marked  Jansenist 
colouring.  In  Quesnel's  ''Moral  Reflexions"  the 
view  taken  of  Christ's  kingdom  is  praotically  that 
of  Calvin.  A  deep  gulf  separates  the  "  elect "  from 
"sinners."  The  latter  ought  not  to  hear  mass. 
Even  their  prayers  are  sinful  in  G-jd's  sight.  This 
exaggeration  of  Jansenism  was  met  by  the  more 
pernicious  exaggerations  of  the  Unigenitus,  1713. 
While  condemning  101  propositions  taken  from 
Quesnel's  book,  this  bull  anathematised  even  the 
most  modified  expressions  of  the  Jansenist  tenets  as 
to  sin,  grace,  and  justification.  It  also  enunciated 
the  doctrines  most  offensive  to  the  Reforming 
Catholics  with  startling  precision. 

Although    the     Unigenitus   received    countenance 
at  Versailles,  it  was  viewed  with  intense      ,     ,, 

The      Appel- 

dislike  by  the  French  nation,  and  indeed  lants,"  Spread 
by  the  Romanist   world  generally.     The   aadGaiUcan 
Jansenist      cause      henceforth      becomes      opinions, 
identified   with  that    of    Gallicanism.      De    Noailles, 
Archbishop  of  Paris,  joined  in  the  appeal   from  the 
offensive  bull   to   the  verdict  of    a   General   Council. 
Jesuit  influence,    however,   was    powerful   enough  to 
obtain  for  the  Unigenitus  the  force  of  law  in  France. 
The  "  Appellants  "  were  silenced  by  sentences  of  de- 
position and    banishment,  and  the  Society   of   Jesus 
secured  against  the  combined  forces  of  piety,  learning, 
and  patriotism,  a  victory  which  was  shortly  to  cot 
it  dear.     The  drift  of  popular  opinion  was  indicated 
by  the  credit  attached  to  the  miracles,   visions,  and 
prophecies  of  the  Jansenist  devotees.     In   1731,  the 


184      MAXUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

wonders  worked  at  the  tomb  of  Francis  de  Paris, 
a  Jansenist  ascetic,  necessitated  a  royal  decree,  for- 
bidding access  to  the  spot.  Nor  was  it  in  France 
only  that  the  Augustinian  theology  became  popular. 
Devout  and  thoughtful  men  propagated  it  in  Austria, 
Spain,  and  Portugal ;  and  in  Italy  it  gained  a 
marked  ascendency.  In  the  Netherlands  the  Jan- 
senists,  protected  by  the  Protestant  government, 
established  an  archi-episcopal  seat  at  Utrecht.  The 
French  Appellant  bishops  consecrated  this  archbishop, 
and  suffragan  sees  were  afterwards  founded  at 
Haarlem  and  Deventer.  This  branch  of  Catholicism 
(of  which  the  "  Old  Catholics "  of  to-day  are  an 
offshoot)  maintained  a  complete  independence  of 
Home,  and  headed  the  general  revolt  against  the 
ultra-montane  tendencies  of  the  Jesuits.  "  In  every 
country,"  says  Ranke,  "  two  parties  were  formed  ;  one 
making  war  on  the  Curia,  the  accredited  constitution, 
and  established  doctrines  of  the  time ;  while  the  other 
laboured  to  maintain  things  as  they  were,  and  uphold 
the  prerogatives  of  the  universal  Church.  The  last 
was  more  particularly  represented  by  the  Jesuits, 
and  it  was  against  them  that  the  storm  was  first 
dii-ected." 

Home  itself  was  not  always  blind  to  the  damaging 

Jesuit  ro-     I'^^^^^^s  of  Jesuit  casuistry.     A  noted  gra- 

seiytisn  and  vamen    against    the    Order    was    the    ac- 

commercial  ^      .  o       /-^ti     -      •        •  i 

soecuiations.  commodation  ot  Christianity  to  the 
a^ttemptstfr^'  religion  of  Confucius  by  its  missionaries 
form  the  Order,  in  China.  This  questionable  prosely- 
tism  was  censured  both  by  Clement  XI.  and 
Innocent  XII.     Later  on  (1740)  there  succeeded  to 


EIGHTEENTH  CEXTURY.  185 

the  Papacy  a  prelate  who  regarded  the  whole 
fraternity  with  unconcealed  dislike.  The  mercantile 
enterprises  of  the  Jesuits  had  long  been  viewed  with 
jealousy  in  Portugal,  as  injurious  to  the  national 
commerce.  To  Benedict  XIV.  they  appeared  to  be 
inconsistent  with  the  high  religious  aims  which  had 
inspired  Loyola  and  Xavier.  But  the  Pope's  con- 
ferences with  Carvalho  on  the  method  of  reforming 
the  Society,  were  interrupted  by  his  death,  and  the 
next  Pope,  Clement  XIII.,  was  chiefly  animated  by 
a  desire  to  re-establish  the  ancient  pretensions  and 
temporal  splendour  of  the  Papacy.  It  was  in  this 
pontificate  that  the  spirit  of  the  eighteenth  century 
obtained  the  mastery,  and  began  its  ravages  on  the 
mediaeval  Papal  system. 

The    first     success    was    in     Portugal,    where     an 
attempt  on  the  life  of  the  king,  of  which 
three  Jesuits   were    found    to    have    had   ^iTtheove?* 
cognizance,   resulted  in  the  expulsion    of    throw  of  the 

Jesuits. 

the  whole  Order,  1759.  In  France  the 
crisis  was  precipitated  by  the  failure  of  a  mercantile 
house  in  Martinique,  with  which  Father  Lavallette 
was  connected,  and  the  refusal  of  the  Jesuits  to 
acknowledge  their  liability.  The  litigation  ensuing 
brought  light  to  bear  on  the  constitution  of  the  Order, 
and  its  status  in  the  eyes  of  the  law.  Special  stress 
was  laid  by  its  adversaries  on  its  antagonism  to  the 
four  Galilean  propositions,  and  on  the  unlimited 
powers  of  the  foreign  Jesuit  General.  Even  the 
French  bishops  decided  that  these  powers  were 
incompatible  with  the  laws  of  the  kingdom.  All 
that   Lewis  XY.   could    do    for    the    menaced    Order 


186      3IAiVrAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

was  to  beg  Ricci  the  General  to  appoint  a  resident- 
vicar,  pletlged  to  obey  French  law.  Ricci  refused  to 
save  the  fraternity  by  tMs  modification  of  its  con- 
stitution. His  "  sint  ut  sunt  aut  non  sint "  was 
endorsed  by  Clement  XIII.,  who  declared  it  impossible 
to  upset  arrangements,  sanctioned  by  the  Council  of 
Trent,  and  confirmed  by  so  many  pontiffs.  By  this 
uncompromising  attitude  the  ruin  of  the  Order 
throughout  Europe  was  determined.  France  at  once 
decreed  tliat  the  Institution  of  the  Jesuits  was 
designed  to  subvert  all  authority,  ecclesiastical  and 
civil,  and  that  it  should  be  excluded  from  the 
kingdom  irrevocably  and  for  ever,  1762.  Bohemia 
and  Denmark  took  similar  steps  in  1766,  and  the 
Bourbon  regencies  generally  adopted  the  French 
procedure  as  a  family  policy.  Charles  III.  of  Spain 
suppressed  the  Order  by  a  sudden  blow,  on  the  pre- 
text that  it  was  conspiring  to  raise  his  brother  to 
the  throne,  and  his  example  was  followed  by  Naples 
and  Parma.  The  Duke  of  Parma  turned  the  attack 
against  the  Holy  See  itself,  by  forbidding  all  recourse 
to  Roman  tribunals  and  all  nomination  of  foreigners 
to  the  ducal  benefices.  Clement  vainly  launched  his 
censures.  The  whole  house  of  Bourbon  made  common 
cause  with  Parma;  and  Avignon,  Benevento,  and 
Pontecorvo  were  immediately  occupied  by  their 
forces.  The  Pope  turned  to  Austria,  but  here 
Maria  Theresa  refused  to  regard  the  dispute  as  a 
matter  of  religion.  No  course  was  left  him  but  to 
temporise  with  the  Bourbon  ambassadors,  who  were 
demanding  the  complete  extinction  of  the  Jesuits  by 
Papal  decree.  At  this  juncture  Clement  III.  died,  1769. 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY.  187 

The  French  and  Spanish  cardinals  now  secured 
the  elevation  of  a  ruler  of  very  different  clement  xrv. 
character — the  genial  Franciscan,  Gan-  '"loSyof 
ganelli.  Clement  XIY.  at  once  revoked  •^^s"^- 
the  Papal  sentences  against  Parma,  made  peace  with 
Portugal,  and  entered  on  an  exhaustive  consideration 
of  the  case  against  the  Jesuits.  Obviously  but  one 
course  was  open.  It  was  one  damaging  to  Papal 
assumption,  yet  not  ungrateful  to  a  Pontiff  of  Fran- 
ciscan training  and  Thomist  tenets.  Clement  XIY. 
fortunately  discovered  that  the  Council  of  Trent  had 
only  alluded  to  the  Jesuit  Order,  without  formally 
approving  it.  The  Papal  decrees  in  its  favour  might, 
he  argued,  be  revoked  in  view  of  the  changed  times. 
Thus  Clement  justified  the  famous  Constitution, 
''  Dominus  ac  Kedemptor  noster,"  by  which  the  entire 
Order  (numbering  now  some  20,000  men)  was  sup- 
pressed, and  its  clerical  members  ordered  to  fall  into 
the  ranks  of  the  secular  clergy,  1773.  The  Pope 
professes  to  be  "impelled  by  the  duty  of  restoring 
concord,  convinced  that  the  Society  of  Jesus  can  no 
longer  effect  the  purposes  for  which  it  was  founded? 
and  moved  by  other  reasons  of  prudence  and  State 
policy."  On  the  charges  generally  brought  against 
the  Jesuits  he  does  not  pronounce  sentence.  The 
Brief  was  violently  resisted  at  Pome.  Picci,  who 
headed  the  insurgents,  was  relegated  to  the  castle 
of  S.  Angelo.  The  death  of  Clement  XIY.  shortly 
afterwards  was  attributed  by  many  to  Jesuit  machina- 
tions. For  the  rest  of  the  century  the  Jesuit  Society 
was  in  abeyance.  The  freaks  of  fortune  impelled  this 
great  bulwark  of  Papal  assumption  to  seek  an  asylum 


188      MAXUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

in  lands  that  disowned  the  Pope.  Orthodox  Russia 
and  Protestant  Prussia  were  henceforth  its  chief 
protectors. 

Ere  Clement  XIV.  died,  the  religious  disputes  in 
Poland  had  contributed  to  bring  about  her 

The 

partition  of  political  extinction.  In  this  country  the 
spread  of  Socinian  opinions  had  caused 
a  wide  severance  of  the  two  religious  platforms,  and 
given  the  Romanist  majority  a  pretext  for  depriving 
the  "  Dissidents,"  or  Protestants,  of  all  political  rights. 
The  Dissidents  in  an  evil  hour  for  their  nation  appealed 
for  redress  to  the  grasping  courts  of  Petersburg  and 
Berlin,  and  by  these  the  flame  of  religious  animosity 
in  Poland  was  henceforth  sedulously  fostered.  In 
1767  the  Diet  was  compelled  by  Russian  troops  to 
restore  the  Dissidents  to  their  ancient  privileges.  It 
was  impossible  that  the  triumph  thus  obtained  by 
the  minority  at  the  cost  of  their  country's  indepen- 
dence should  result  in  religious  harmony.  The  feuds 
were  only  embittered.  Their  continuance  served  as 
a  pretext  for  the  partition  of  this  distracted  country 
between  Russia,  Prussia  and  Austria,  1772. 

The  overthrow  of  the  Jesuits  necessarily  convulsed 

Attacks  on  the  the  world  of  Romanism  to  its  very  basis. 

p.pai  system  in  j^    was     the    fall    of    the     outworks    of 

•various 

countries,  mediaeval  Popery.  Assaults  on  the  citadel 
rapidly  followed.  They  culminate  in  the  overthrow 
of  religion  and  order  by  the  frenzied  Republicans  of 
France.  From  this  point  the  tide  of  opinion  again 
flows  in  the  direction  of  Conservatism.  The  restora- 
tion of  the  Jesuits,  and  the  reactionary  Catholicism 
of   the    19  th   century   are   the   consequences.     After 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY.  189 

Ganganelli's  death  we  find  the  old  ecclesiastical 
theories  assailed  in  every  province  of  the  Roman 
Church.  In  Tuscany,  Leopold,  the  future  Emperor, 
conducted  a  Reformation  on  the  lines  of  our 
Henry  VIII.  The  questionable  steps  by  which  Papal 
supremacy  had  been  established  were  exposed.  The 
Inquisition  was  suppressed  ;  religious  pageantry  was 
diminished  ;  the  spiritual  courts  were  brought  under 
control,  the  clergy  taxed  as  laymen.  More  important 
was  the  revolt  in  Austria.  The  Emperor  Joseph  II. 
was  bent  on  consolidating  all  national  agencies  in  the 
hands  of  the  Crown.  Austria,  in  this  reign,  under- 
went changes  which,  though  conceived  in  the  spirit 
of  despotism,  were  undeniably  beneficial  to  its  Church. 
Joseph's  reforms  (1780-92)  included  restrictions  on 
Roman  bulls  ;  prohibition  of  pilgrimages  ;  an  abolition 
of  mendicant  monks ;  a  conversion  of  half  the  monas- 
teries into  colleges,  hospitals,  and  barracks;  and  a 
demand  that  the  surviving  establishments  should 
subserve  pastoral  or  educational  purposes.  Not  only 
was  liturgical  splendour  diminished  ;  it  was  ordered 
that  the  vernacular  should  be  used  for  all  services 
except  the  mass.  Full  toleration  was  accorded  both 
to  Protestants  and  Greeks.  These  important  measures 
brought  an  interpellation  from  Rome  in  the  form  of 
a  visit  from  the  Pope  himself.  Pius  VI.  was  received 
at  the  Austrian  court  with  due  honours,  but  he  failed 
to  stay  the  hands  of  the  reforming  Emperor.  Spain, 
herself,  had  caught  the  anti-Papal  spirit.  She  claimed 
liberties  akin  to  those  of  the  Galilean  Church,  and 
she  reduced  the  Inquisition  to  a  mere  engine  of 
political   tyranny.       In    Portugal   a    restriction   was 


190      MAXUAL   OF  CIICRCU  HISTORY. 

placed  on  the  adoption  of  monastic  vows,  and  a 
larger  licence  accorded  to  the  press.  Nearer  the 
centre  of  Catholicism,  Venice  was  suppressing  mona- 
steries, Naples  obliterating  all  traces  of  her  feudal 
dependence  on  Rome,  a  synod  at  Pistoja  propounding 
a  manifesto  embodying  the  principles  of  Jansenism 
and  Gallicanism. 

This  general  revolt  against  the  old  order  strongly 

Course  of  the  influenced  the  cause  of  the  Revolution  in 

French       France.     The  same  tendencies  which  led 

Revolution. 

The  Civil  prelates  to  the  limitations  on  Papal 
Abolition  of  authority  roused  the  clergy  to  resent  the 
Christianity-  ^^^tocracy  of  their  diocesans.  In  France 
this  feeling  was  fostered  by  the  restriction  of  ecclesi- 
astical dignities  to  the  scions  of  the  aristocracy.  Not 
unnaturally,  therefore,  the  revolutionary  movement 
was  at  first  abetted,  not  only  by  the  Jansenist  party, 
but  by  the  French  parochial  clergy  generally.  Even 
a  few  of  the  prelates  were  found  abetting  the  alliance 
of  the  clerical  deputies  with  the  Third  Estate  in  1789. 
But  this  alliance  was  destined  to  cost  the  French 
Church  dear.  The  Convention  proceeded  to  abolish 
tithes,  on  a  vague  understanding  that  religion  should 
be  provided  for  in  another  way.  Shortly  afterwards 
the  landed  estates  of  the  Church  were  confiscated  to 
relieve  the  financial  embarrassments  of  the  country, 
and  the  clergy  were  made  public  stipendiaries,  with 
a  loss  of  four-fifths  of  their  incomes.  The  Civil  Con- 
stitution of  August,  1790,  reduced  the  Bishoprics  to 
the  same  number  as  the  departments,  suppressed 
Chapters,  and  ordered  that  both  prelates  and  in- 
cumbents should  be  elected  in  the  same  way  as  the 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY.  191 

deputies.  In  November,  1790,  an  oath  to  support  the 
new  Constitution  was  demanded  of  all  incumbents. 
The  Pope  had  already  condemned  it.  Boisgelin,  Arch- 
bishop of  Aix,  now  headed  the  clerical  resistance  with 
his  "  Exposition  of  the  Principles  of  the  Christian 
Fciith,"  a  document  which  was  signed  by  all  the 
French  bishops  and  the  doctors  of  the  Sor bonne. 
On  the  day  prescribed,  Archbishop  de  Brienne  and 
three  bishops  alone  took  the  oath;  127  prelates 
refused  it.  New  bishops  were  appointed  to  Talley- 
rand and  his  associates  ;  and  the  schism  of  the  jjretres 
assermentes  and  non-assermentes  rent  the  Church 
of  France.  The  nonjuror  clergy  were  made  liable 
to  imprisonment  and  exile.  The  assermentes  soon 
deprived  themselves  of  all  claim  to  respect  by  their 
share  in  the  revolutionary  excesses.  Many  of  those 
who  had  seats  in  the  Convention  voted  for  the  king's 
execution.  The  climax  was  reached  when  Gobet, 
Bishop  of  Paris,  and  his  grand- vicars  abjured  Christi- 
anity in  the  hall  of  the  Convention,  November,  1793. 
OiHciating  clergy  were  now  made  liable  to  imprison- 
ment or  exile.  The  churches  were  plundered.  The 
goddess  of  Reason  was  installed  at  Notre  Dame,  and 
the  tenth  day  of  rest  substituted  for  the  Christian 
Sunday. 

The    general   craving   for    religion    necessitated    a 
modification  of  these  measures  in   1797. 

-T)    -,  T  1  .  .  i.'  1       Christianity 

Public     worship     was   again    sanctioned,  again  tolerated, 
and    a    Council    of     38    bishops    and  53  ^t^^^^^^jj^jj"- 
clei'gy     met    in     Paris    to     vote    a    pro-  Procedure  of 
fession     of      faith    based    on    the    creed 
of  Pius  lY.     To  propitiate  the  ruling  powers,  this 


192       JfAXUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

Council  allowed  that  an  oath  against  the  restoration 
of  royalty  was  not  incompatible  with  Christianity. 
Its  proceedings  were  communicated  to  Rome,  and  a 
request  was  made  for  the  convocation  of  a  General 
Council.  The  Pope,  however,  was  not  in  a  position 
to  consider  this  demand.  Pius  VI.  had  maintained 
throughout  an  attitude  of  rigorous  conservatism.  He 
had  launched  sentences  at  the  j^retres  assermentes, 
and  even  during  the  war  in  Italy  had  denounced 
the  Jansenist  and  Gallican  doctrines  of  Pistoja  in 
the  bull  "Auctorem  Fidei."  When  the  French 
authorities  now  demanded,  as  the  price  of  peace,  his 
revocation  of  these  edicts,  and  an  acknowledgment 
of  the  Civil  Constitution,  he  refused  acquiescence. 
Pome  was  accordingly  invaded  and  sacked,  by  order 
of  the  Directory,  and  the  Pope  was  taken  a  prisoner 
to  France.  The  complete  extinction  of  the  Pontificate 
seemed  imminent.  AVhen  Pius  VI.  died  at  Valence, 
in  1799,  the  Directory  endorsed  Bonaparte's  instruc- 
tions to  his  brother,  prohibiting  the  appointment  of 
another  Pope. 

The  Protestant  systems  fared  scarcely  better  than 
^  Romanism  itself  in  this  asre  of  upheaval. 

Decadence  of  ^  .  ^ . 

the  Lutheran  Luthcranism  maintained  its  tenure  in 
^"^schoois  of ^  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway;  but  in  the 
philosophy.  \^^^  Qf  j^g  birth,  its  principles  were  sapped 
by  the  assaults  of  modern  philosophy.  At  the 
close  of  the  century,  the  essentials  of  German  Chris- 
tianity seemed  likely  to  survive  only  among  the 
Pietists.  This  party,  under  Count  Zinzendorf,  1722, 
had  given  birth  to  the  so-called  Moravian  Brethren, 
an  important  body,  which  claimed  to  follow  rigidly 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTVEY.  193 

the  doctrine  of  John  Has,  and  which  became  re- 
nowned for  missionary  and  educational  enterprise. 
The  reign  of  rationalism  in  Germany  was  inaugurated 
by  the  great  optimist  philosopher,  Liebnitz  {d.  1716), 
whose  attempted  reconciliation  of  theology  and 
philosophy  only  represented  the  Deity  as  the  prime 
intelligent  monad.  This  "strayed  scholastic,"  in 
his  relations  to  religion,  contrasts  strikingly  with  his 
great  rival  Locke,  who  regarded  the  two  as  distinct 
provinces  of  human  cognizance.  Wolf,  whose  system 
rose  from  obloquy  to  triumph  cir.  1740,  by  extending 
Descartes'  maxim  "'  cogito,  ergo  sum,"  appears  to  have 
made  the  powers  of  human  conception  the  gauge  of 
all  religious  verity.  From  this  it  was  an  easy  tran- 
sition to  the  position  that  man  has  sufficient  light 
without  a  revelation.  The  old  beliefs  fared  little 
better  when  Descartes'  philosophy  was  succeeded  by 
that  of  Kant,  though  the  latter  could  be  ac- 
commodated to  Christianity  by  such  assumptions 
as  Jacobi's — that  there  is  a  supra-sensible  faculty 
of  intellectual  intuition,  which  deals  with  spiritual 
things.  Nor  was  religion  benefited  when  philosophy 
of  more  introspective  character  led  on  to  the  systems 
of  subjective  idealism  propounded  by  Fichte  and 
Hegel.  Outside  the  province  of  metaphysics, 
Ernesti's  school  of  literary  criticism  had  hastily  en- 
dorsed a  system  of  negation,  and  linked  itself  with 
the  materialist  or  utilitarian  philosophy.  Paulus  and 
Semler  are  the  typical  theologians.  In  the  former's 
exegesis  miracles  and  prophesies  are  of  necessity  un- 
substantial, the  only  orthodoxy  being  conscientious 
pursuit  of  historical  truth.     Lessing,   the  great  ex- 

VOL.  IT.  1  3 


194     MANUAL   OF   CllUliCU  U I  STORY. 

ponent  of  the  utilitarian  philosophy,  depicted  Chris- 
tianity, Judaism,   and    Mohammedanism,   as   equally 
true   and   equally   false,   and   regarded   all  religions 
as   only   designed   to   develop   man's    moral    powers 
and  faculties.    Despite  prohibitive  edicts,  such  as  that 
of  Frederic   William  II.   in  1788,  the    new    schools 
of  thought   attained   wide    popularity   in   Germany. 
Orthodoxy,    a    cause    which    in    England   now    pro- 
duced writers  of  undying  fame,  found  few  Continental 
advocates  of  any  note.     The  clergy  generally  appear 
to    have    contented    themselves   with    pressing    the 
importance  which  the   great    Kant  had   attached  to 
morality.     An  edict  commanding  preachers  to  abstain 
from  mere   moralizing,   and  maintain  the  authority 
of   the   Scriptures,  was   actually  issued   by  Frederic 
William  II.  in  1794. 
The  theological  attitude  of  the  "  Reformed  "  bodies 
Decadence  of  ^^^  equally  diverse   from   that   of   their 
the  Caivinistic  originator.        Switzerland     rejected     cir. 
1720,  the  narrow  ''  Formula  Consensus," 
which    Heidegger    had    established    in    1675    as    a 
bulwark  against  the   incursions   of   the  French  Ar- 
minians.      Changes     were    made    in    the    doctrine, 
discipline,    and    worship   of    the    various    Reformed 
communities.     In  fact,  although  maintaining  an  atti- 
tude of  mutual  tolerance,  these  bodies  had  now  little 
in  common,  and  the  narrow  dogmatism  of  Dort  had 
given    place   to  a   latitudinarianism  leavened  as  in 
Germany  with  much  agnostic  philosophy.     Scotland, 
at  the  close  of  the  century,  stands  almost  alone,  as 
a  maintainer  of  true  Caivinistic  religion. 

Such   periods   of   religious    decadence   are   usually 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY.  195 

marked  by  the  rise  of  strange  mystic  systems.  But 
the  minds  that  might  have  been  attracted  swedenborg's 
by  quietist  forms  of  religion  appear  to  mysticism, 
have  now  attached  themselves  to  the  negative  schools 
of  philosophy.  The  only  system  of  the  kind  deserving 
mention  is  that  of  the  Swedish  scientist,  Swedenborg 
[d,  1772),  who  combined  with  the  usual  quietist 
aspirations  some  very  singular  views  of  the  Trinity, 
and  of  the  second  Advent.  His  opinions,  though 
little  favoured  on  the  Continent,  gained  a  permanent 
footing  in  England,  where  the  "  New  Jerusalem 
Temples,"  in  which  Swedenborg  is  venerated  as  a 
prophet,  numbered  seventy  in  1879. 

We  now  review  the  course  of  religious  events  in  this 
country.      The  English  Church  received 

^  Anglicanism 

encouragement  and   generous   treatment   under  Queen 
from  Queen  Anne,  and  attained  in  this  *' 

reign  a  condition  of  great  prosperity  and  usefulness. 
The  first-fruits  and  tenths,  which  under  Henry  VIII. 
had  passed  from  the  Pope  to  the  more  tenacious  grasp 
of  the  Crown,  were  by  Anne  restored  to  the  Church. 
Henceforward  these  revenues  supplied  the  well-known 
"Queen  Anne's  Bounty  Fund,"  devoted  mainly  to 
the  augmentation  of  poor  benefices,  and  building  of 
parsonages.  The  Lo';ver  House  of  Convocation  still 
resented  the  recent  infringement  of  its  rights,  and 
discredited  itself  in  this  reign  by  factious  opposi- 
tion to  the  prelates.  Archbishop  Tenison's  irregular 
prorogation  of  Convccition  in  1706  paved  the  way 
for  its  unconstitutional  suppression  under  George  I. 
During  the  ascendancy  of  the  Whigs,  the  High 
Church  school  were   in    disfavour  with  the  govern- 


196     MANUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

ment,  and  attained  proportionate  popularity  with 
the  public.  The  notorious  Sacheverell  case  ruined 
the  Whig  ministry.  Dr.  Sacheverell  had  justi- 
fied the  popular  cry,  "the  Church  in  danger,"  by 
exposing  the  deference  of  the  Whigs  to  Noncon- 
formist encroachments,  and  denouncing  the  religious 
policy  of  the  Revolution.  The  ministry  foolishly  made 
him  a  martyr,  1710.  His  cause  was  taken  up  with 
enthusiasm  by  the  populace;  and  though  a  three 
years'  suspension  from  preaching  was  part  of  Sache- 
verell's  sentence,  the  queen  showed  her  sympathy  by 
bestowing  preferment  on  him.  A  dissolution  of  Par- 
liament resulted  in  the  return  of  a  House  largely 
composed  of  Tories  and  High  Churchmen,  whose  views 
maintained  an  unimpaired  popularity  till  the  end  of 
the  reign.  Harsh  measures  against  Dissent  were 
now  proposed.  Though  the  Nonconformists  had 
obtained  liberty  of  worship  by  the  Toleration  Act, 
the  Test  Act  still  required  all  military  and  civil 
officers  to  be  Anglican  communicants.  It  naturally 
resul.'.fd  that  the  sacrament  was  often  received  by 
Nonconformists  as  "  a  picklock  to  a  place."  Instead 
of  abolishing  the  Test  Act,  the  Tory  Parliament  dealt 
with  this  abuse  in  the  spirit  of  senseless  intolerance. 
In  1711  it  passed  the  Occasional  Conformity  Act, 
fining  officials  who  should  attend  Nonconformist 
chapels.  In  1713  came  the  Schism  Bill,  practically 
suppressing  Dissenting  schools  by  the  requisition 
that  the  masters  should  be  Anglican  communicants^ 
Anne's  death  prevented  this  Act  from  coming  into 
operation. 

The  literature  of  the  English  Church  was  at  this 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY.  197 

time  enriched  by  the  works  of  Beveridge,  Prideaux, 
Wall,  and  Bingham.  Her  fame  abroad  p^^^  ^^.^  ^^ 
was  such  that  Frederic  I.  ordered  a  German  the  EngUsh 
translation  of  the  Liturgy.  Hopes  were  GaUica 
even  entertained  of  restoring  the  Episcopal  o^e^^tures, 
succession  to  the  Protestant  bodies  by  Anglican 
agency.  Yet  more  remarkable  were  the  overtures 
for  a  union  of  the  English  and  Gallican  Churches, 
made  to  Archbishop  Wake  by  certain  doctors  of 
the  Sorbonne,  shortly  after  the  issue  of  the  offensive 
bull  TJnigenitus.  Du  Pin's  letters  on  this  subject 
1717-18,  show  how  small  a  gulf  divided  the  French 
Appellants  from  an  Anglican  prelate,  of  by  no  means 
High  Church  tenets.  It  is  instructive  to  notice  that 
the  only  barriers  to  union  discovered  by  the  French 
doctors  were  certain  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles, 
viz..  Articles  XXI.,  XXV.,  XXYIII.,  XXXI., 
XXXYII.  Du  Pin  maintains  in  short — that  General 
Councils  cannot  err ;  that  the  five  Roman  sacraments 
should  be  admitted ;  that  without  mention  of  tran- 
substantiation,  our  Church  ought  to  assert  the  change 
of  the  consecrated  elements;  that  the  sacrifice  of 
the  Saviour  is  repeated  in  the  Eucharist;  that  the 
Pope,  albeit  without  claim  to  immediate  spiritual 
jurisdiction,  is  the  primate  of  Christendom.  The 
negotiations  were  fruitless.  Du  Pin  died,  and  the  trans- 
action was  discovered  by  the  ever  watchful  Jesuits, 
who  took  care  to  expose  it  in  the  darkest  colours. 

But   long   before  Wake    ended   his   primacy,   this 
golden  age  of   Anglicanism  had   passed.  The  Georgian 
The  clergy  generally  resented  the  acces-    decadence, 
sion  of  a  dynasty,  which  only  forsook  Lutheranism 


198       MANUAL  OF  CHURCH  UISTORY. 

to  qualify  for  the  Crown.  The  Episcopate  was 
consequently  filled  under  Georges  I.  and  II.  with 
men  of  lukewarm  Churchman  ship,  sometimes  learned, 
but  elevated  mainly  for  their  attachment  to  the 
new  dynasty.  Between  these  prelates  and  the  work- 
ing clergy  there  was  little  sympathy.  In  1717 
Convocation  w^as  peremptorily  dissolved  for  censuring 
Hoadly's  Erastian  sermon  on  ''The  Nature  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Christ."  By  persistent  refusal  of  the 
necessary  licence  the  Church's  representative  body  was 
kept  silenced,  and  its  abeyance  was  destined  to  last  137 
years.  The  Georgian  governments  made  it  their  aim 
to  suppress  the  Romanists  and  non-jurors ;  reduce  the 
Church,  as  a  centre  of  Jacobite  allegiance,  to  a  state 
of  enforced  inertia ;  and  secure  the  good-will  of  the 
Nonconformist  sects.  The  offence  of  "constructive 
recusancy"  was  devised,  two  justices  being  em- 
powered to  tender  oaths  of  allegiance,  supremacy, 
and  abjuration  to  suspected  persons.  In  1722, 
Walpole  raised  £100,000  by  a  tax  on  the  estates 
of  Romanists  and  non-jurors.  From  the  same 
unscrupulous  minister  the  Dissenters  received  the 
endowment  termed  ''Regium  Donum,"  which  re- 
mained a  fixed  institution  till  1863. 

During    the    ensuing    period    of   spiritual   torpor 
infidelity     made    rapid    progress.       The 

The  English  "^  «     ^,     .     .       .  ,  .       ^. 

school  of  assailants  of  Christianity  at  this  time 
Freethinkers.  ^^,^^^  commonly,  but  inaccurately,  styled 
"Deists."  Locke's  celebrated  essay,  1690,  is  some- 
times quoted  as  if  the  precursor  of  these  petulant 
assailants.  Really  it  stands  on  a  different  plane  of 
thought.     Moreover  this  father  of  modern  psychology 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY.  199 

distinctly  insists  on  our  conviction  of  the  existence 
of  God.  Probably  Locke's  large  but  premature 
scheme  of  Christian  reunion  sufficiently  explains 
this  obloquy.  The  direct  attack  on  miracles  had, 
however,  been  opened  in  the  17th  century  by 
Toland's  "Christianity  not  mysterious,"  cir.  1696. 
Shaftesbury's  *' Characteristics,"  followed  in  1713, 
insidiously  impugning  the  commonly  received  grounds 
of  faith,  while  commending  Christianity  on  utili- 
tarian grounds.  Mandeville's  "Fable  of  the  Bees," 
on  the  other  hand,  by  representing  the  sins  of  men 
as  necessary  to  the  welfare  of  the  State,  undermined 
the  sanctity  of  Christian  morality.  But  the  most 
dangerous  works  of  this  school  were  Anthony  Collins' 
discourses  "  On  Free  Thinking,"  and  "  On  the  Grounds 
of  the  Christian  Eeligion."  Collins  represented  the 
Scriptures  as  forgeries,  and  specially  aspersed  the 
evidence  from  prophecy.  His  writings  were  afterwards 
used  in  France,  where  Diderot,  d'Alembert,  Rousseau, 
Yoltaire,  and  the  Encyclopaedists  conducted  a  simi- 
lar attack  on  religion.  Next  came  Woolston,  who 
wrote  in  the  character  of  a  moderator  between 
Collins  and  the  Church,  and  incurred  legal  penalties 
by  his  coarse  attacks  on  the  literal  view  of  the 
miracles.  He  was  followed  by  Tindal,  the  chief 
exponent  of  real  Deism.  In  "  Christianity  as  Old 
as  the  Creation"  (1730)  Tindal  argues  that  natural 
conscience  had  practically  anticipated  revelation,  and 
that  miracles  were  only  inventions  based  on  self- 
interest.  Similar  ground  was  taken  by  Morgan  in 
the  "  Moral  Philosopher,"  and  by  Chubb  in  a  number 
cf  tracts  written  for   the    lower   orders.      To   these 


200       MANUAL  OF  CnURCII  HISTORY. 

writings  must  be  atUled  Bolingbroke's  posthumous 
Philosophical  Works,  which  taught  that  the  basis 
of  religion,  as  of  government,  was  selfishness,  and 
presented  a  God  omnipotent,  but  inconceivable  and 
unrevealed.  In  the  next  generation  Deism  took 
the  form  of  that  sneering,  unscientific  scepticism, 
of  which  the  chief  representatives  are  Hume,  Gibbon, 
and  Paine. 

The  dignitaries  of  the  Georgian  Church  made 
amends  for  their  neglect  of  pastoral 
vindications  of  dutics  by  their  energy  in  writing  against 
the  new  forms  of  infidelity.  Among  the 
earlier  Apologists  were  Bishops  Sherlock  and  Gibson 
(who  respectively  answered  Woolston  in  the  *'  Trial 
of  the  Four  Witnesses  "  and  the  "  Pastoral  Letters  ") 
and  Butler,  the  author  of  the  immortal  ''  Analogy  '' 
(1736).  Warburton's  "Divine  Legation  of  Moses," 
and  Berkeley's  "  Alciphron,  "  were  hardly  less  credit- 
able to  the  episcopate.  The  later  sceptics  were  ably 
confronted  by  Bishop  Watson  and  Dean  Paley.  The 
clergy  follow^ed  the  lead  with  innumerable  sermons 
on  "  the  reasonableness  of  Christianity."  It  must  be 
understood  that  at  this  time  most  religious  persons, 
instead  of  enlisting  the  services  of  emotional  Christi- 
anity, denounced  it  as  "  enthusiasm."  This  attitude 
was  in  no  way  altered  by  the  era  of  argumentation. 
A  cold  rationalism  took  the  place  of  religious  zeal, 
and  confirmed  the  apathy  and  indifierence  inspired 
by  the  ecclesiastical  policy  of  the  court.  Outside 
the  Church,  religion  was  sapped  by  an  outbreak  of 
anti-Trinitarian  theories.  Dissenting  synods  at 
Exeter   and  Salters'   Hall   had  split  on  the  subject 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY,  201 

of  'the  1st  Article  of  the  English  Church.  The 
Salters'  Hall  controversy  was  succeeded  by  a  pre- 
dominance of  Unitarianism  among  the  Noncon- 
formists, and  specially  among  the  Presbyterians. 
This  form  of  Christianity  is  noticeable  as  attracting 
some  of  the  most  noted  men  of  the  century — Locke, 
Newton,  Samuel  Clarke,  Lardner,  and  Whiston. 

From  this  lethargic  condition  the  English  Church 
was  roused  by  the  preaching  of  Whitefield  ^j^^  Methodist 
and  the  Wesleys.     Their  work,  however,    movement, 
was  destined  to  result  in  the  most  important  schism 
that  the  Anglican  fold  had  yet  sustained. 

John  and  Charles  Wesley,  as  youthful  Anglican  pietists,  had 
in  conjunction  with  George  Whitefield,  established  the  Holy  or 
Methodist  Society  at  Oxford,  for  the  pursuit  of  religious  exercises. 
Both  became  clergymen.  Wesley,  as  a  missionary  in  Georgia, 
learnt  from  certain  Moravians  the  doctrines  of  instantaneous 
"conversion"  and  accompanying  "assurance,"  1738.  Whitefield 
imbibed  similar  tenets  among  the  French  Protestants  in  Lon- 
don, and  was  led  to  accept  the  Calvinistic  doctrines  of  final 
perseverance  and  irresistible  grace.  These  the  brothers  Wesley 
rejected.  Hence  the  separation  of  the  Methodist  movement  into 
two  distinct  streams — the  Calvinistic  and  the  Arminian.  The 
warmth  and  eloquence  of  the  Methodist  leaders  achieved  extra- 
ordinary successes  among  the  neglected  lower  orders.  To  the 
Georgian  clergy,  with  their  hatred  of  enthusiasm,  the  manner 
and  the  matter  of  their  discourses  were  alike  displeasing.  It  may 
be  added  that  the  Methodist  cause  was  often  disparaged  by  cases 
of  hypocrisy,  self-deception,  and  puerile  superstition,  and  that 
Wesley  himself  evidently  mistook  hysteria  for  miraculous 
agency.  It  is  nevertheless  a  reproach  to  the  English  Church 
that  the  Methodists  were  driven  from  her  pale,  and  the  severance 
was  especially  uncalled  for  in  the  case  of  Wesley's  followers. 
The  breach  gradually  widened  from  the  time  that  the  Methodist 
clergymen  were  refused  access  to  the  churches  and  resorted  to 
open-air  preaching.  The  increase  of  their  followers  and  the  need 
for  ofl&cial  organisation  soon  evoked  a  machinery  quite  indepen- 
dent of  the  Established  Church.     At  last  certain  Wesleyans,  who 


202       MANUAL  OF  CUURCU  HISTORY. 

had  been  refused  ordination  by  the  bishops,  took  upon  them- 
selves to  administer  the  Holy  Communion,  1760.  The  Calvinistic 
Methodists  in  1781  registered  their  chapels  as  Dissenting  con- 
venticles. Wesley  himself,  in  his  anxiety  to  secure  an  official 
organisation  for  his  American  converts,  assumed  episcopal 
functions',  consecrated  superiutcndents,  and  ordained  presbyters, 
1784.  His  own  intense  aversion  to  schism  thus  overcome,  his 
followers  naturally  disregarded  his  last  injunctions,  to  abide  in 
the  Church  of  England.  Their  Plan  of  Pacification  (1795) 
established  the  preachers'  right  to  administer  Holy  Communion. 
In  1797  the  Methodist  New  Connexion  broke  off ;  in  1810  the 
Primitive  Methodists ;  in  1815  the  Bible  Christians.  Other 
secessions  might  be  named.  Similar  has  been  the  fate  of 
Calvinistic  Methodism.  The  main  body  received  a  new  nomen- 
clature from  Lady  Huntingdon,  the  foundress  of  the  missionary 
college  at  Cheshunt.  Its  ramifications  are  numerically  un- 
important. 

If  weakened  by  these  departures,  the  Establishment 
jjjg  at  least  caught  from  the  Methodists  the 
"  EvangeUcai8."gpirit  of  religious  zeal.  There  arose  in 
the  Church  a  school  of  "  Evangehcal "  pietists,  who, 
while  acquiescing  in  the  Anglican  principles,  sup- 
plemented them  with  the  tenets  of  the  moderate 
Calvinistic  Methodists.  The  Evangelical  clergy 
aimed  at  conversion  rather  than  guidance.  They 
regarded  the  Scriptures  as  verbally  inspired,  made 
Luther's  doctrine  of  imputed  righteousness  the  basis 
of  all  their  sermons,  and  attached  little  importance 
to  sacraments,  and  none  to  externals  of  worship. 
Professing  an  austerity  akin  to  that  of  the  earlier 
Puritans,  they  denounced  many  ordinary  diversions  as 
unfit  for  the  "  converted."  The  Evangelical  move- 
ment produced  the  first  Sunday  Schools ;  and  caused 
the  foundation  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society, 
the  Religious  Tract  Society,  and  the  Bible  Society. 
Its  most  noted  names  are  Fletcher,  Yenn,  Toplady, 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY.  203 

Berridge,  Hervey,  Newton,  Komaine,  and  Kowland 
Hill.  High  Churchmanship,  though  accredited  in 
this  period  by  William  Law's  "  Serious  Call "  and 
Wilson's  "  Sacra  Privata,"  had  now  degenerated  into 
a  stereotyped  ecclesiastical  Toryism.  The  school  of 
rational  Godliness  was  as  yet  without  the  warmth  of 
philanthropic  zeal.  To  the  Evangelicals,  therefore, 
must  be  traced  nearly  all  the  religious  life  in  the 
Church  of  the  later  Georgian  age. 

The    English   episcopate,  as  usual,    was   slow    to 
accept  the  new  pietism.     Under  George 
III.  literary  bishops  gave  place   to  con-     ^  under ^**^ 
nexions  and  dependants  of  the  aristocracy,  ^  <^eorge  ni. 

_    ^  ^  *^     Consecration  of 

who  mostly  ignored  the  superintendence  Arnerican 
of  their  dioceses.  Pluralism  and  non-  "  °^  ' 
residence  deprived  the  people  of  their  religious 
privileges.  The  sacraments  were  neglected.  Care 
for  the  externals  of  worship  was  scouted  as  super- 
stition. The  ancient  churches  went  to  ruin,  new 
fabrics  were  scarcely  contemplated.  But  it  is  hard  to 
say  how  far  the  Georgian  bishops  are  to  be  repre- 
hended for  the  paralysis  of  the  English  Church.  How 
completely  the  State  fettered  their  action  is  illustrated 
by  the  prolonged  refusal  of  an  episcopate  to  the 
American  Churchmen.  Despite  repeated  entreaties 
on  the  part  of  this  scion  of  the  Church,  nothing  was 
done  on  its  behalf.  It  remained  in  theory  under  the 
charge  of  the  Bishop  of  London,  and  practically  of 
course  without  the  rites  of  confirmation,  ordination, 
or  consecration.  Not  till  the  Independence  of  the 
United  States  was  established,  did  the  Americans 
secure    an    episcopal    organisation.       The    English 


204      JfA.VCAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

prelates  were  now  afraid  to  act  because  the  obligation 
to  administer  the  oaths  of  allegiance  and  supremacy 
was  unrepealed.  But  they  gladly  made  arrange- 
ments for  the  consecration  of  the  American  candidate, 
Dr.  Seabury,  by  bishops  of  the  down-trodden  Church 
of  Scotland  (1784).  In  1787  an  Act  of  Parliament 
removed  the  difficulties  in  England.  Two  American 
bishops  were  now  consecrated  at  Lambeth,  and  in 
1789  the  liturgy  and  canons  of  the  American  Church 
assumed  their  present  form. 

The  piinciples  of  toleration  made  progress  as  the 
Reversal  of  Hanovcrian  dynasty  gained  a  firm  footing, 
Coercive  Acts,  ^^idi  the  Jacobito  schism  wore  itself  out. 
A  sense  of  the  injustice  which  Romanists  suffered  in 
respect  to  tenure  of  property,  led  in  1778  to  a  repeal 
of  their  disabilities  in  this  regard.  Even  this  scant 
measure  of  relief  provoked  a  "  No  Popery  "  panic  in 
Scotland,  followed  by  the  celebrated  Gordon  riots  in 
London.  In  1791,  however,  the  statutes  of  recusancy 
were  abolished,  and  English  Romanists,  though  still 
deprived  of  political  rights,  w^ere  placed  in  respect  to 
fiscal  contribution  on  a  level  with  their  countrymen. 
Before  this  indulgence  was  shown,  the  leading 
Romanists  in  England  had  formally  repudiated  the 
Pope's  right  to  depose  princes  and  subvert  govern- 
ments. 

Ireland  was,  of  course,  the  hotbed  of  all  Jacobite 
conspiracies.     Here  therefore  the  Roman- 
ist majority  lay  throughout  this  century 
under    statutes    of     a    most    oppressive    character. 
Besides  being  excluded  from  the  franchise  and  from 
public    offices,    the    Romanist    was    debarred    from 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY,  205 

many  professions.  He  was  not  allowed  to  buy 
lands,  keep  a  horse,  or  marry  a  Protestant.  Though 
the  humanity  of  their  neighbours  doubtless  made 
these  restrictions  often  inoperative,  the  Komanists 
did  not  secure  their  abrogation  till  1778  and  1782. 
From  this  time  onward  the  policy  of  England  has 
been  one  of  conciliation  and  generous  indulgence  to 
Irish  Bomanism.  In  1792  Pitt  forced  on  the  Irish 
Parliament  measures  for  the  admission  of  Komanists 
to  the  franchise,  and  to  civil  and  military  offices. 
The  Irish  Rebellion  of  1798  suggested  the  political 
necessity  of  the  legislative  union  of  the  two  countries 
(1800).  The  result  of  this  measure  was  a  gradual 
removal  of  the  grievances  of  the  Irish  people.  Its 
tendency  in  the  direction  of  rehgious  conciliation 
was  foreshadowed  by  Pitt's  proposal  of  an  ''  effectual 
and  adequate  provision  for  the  Catholic  clergy." 

Scotland,  on  the  accession  of  William  III.,    had 
passed  an  Act  rendering  every  Romanist 

^  o  J  Scotland.    The 

who  refused  the  "  Formula "  of  abjura-  EpiscopaUans. 
tion  liable  to  be  stripped  of  his  estates  ^ 
by  the  next  Protestant  heir.  Penalties  of  this  kind 
were  not  finally  swept  away  till  the  Bill  of  1793. 
The  persecuted  Episcopalians — despite  the  govern- 
ment's disgraceful  subserviency  to  Presbyterian 
animosity  at  the  time  of  the  Union — obtained  tolera- 
tion under  Queen  Anne.  An  Act  of  1712  protected 
their  public  worship,  baptisms,  and  marriages.  But 
the  government  of  George  I.  did  its  utmost  to  crush 
these  suspected  fautors  of  the  Stuart  cause.  Their 
clergy  were  forced  to  have  their  letters  of  orders 
registered  in  England,  and  the  registration  was  im- 


206      MANUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

peded  by  every  possible  device.  Many  clergymen 
were  at  this  time  imprisoned  or  forced  to  emigrate. 
The  Episcopalian  services  were  in  almost  all  cases 
conducted  in  secret.  English  hostility  only  ceased 
when  the  death  of  the  young  Pretender,  in  1788, 
overcame  the  scruples  of  Scotch  non- jurors,  and  prayers 
for  George  III.  became  unexceptionable.  In  1792 
the  Scotch  Episcopalians  obtained  full  toleration,  on 
the  condition  of  the  oath  of  allegiance  and  subscrip- 
tion to  the  39  Articles.  They  had  ere  this  (1764) 
accepted  a  new  Communion  Office  based  on  that 
of  the  Prayer  Book  of  1549.  The  Kirk  itself  is 
conspicuous  as  remaining  faithful  to  the  Calvinistic 
model  throughout  this  century  of  revolution.  But  it 
suffered  repeatedly  from  schisms,  and  the  system 
of  patronage  was  a  continual  grievance  to  the  stricter 
Presbyterians.  By  the  Act  of  1712  a  presentation 
by  an  undoubted  patron  had  of  necessity  to  be 
sustained  by  the  presbytery.  This  was  resented  as 
a  flagrant  deviation  from  the  Calvinistic  ideal 
of  Church  constitution.  The  malcontents  were  kept 
from  open  revolt  by  the  influence  of  the  great  Scotch 
divine,  Robertson,  but  the  way  was  already  pre- 
pared for  the  great  schism  of  1843.  Of  the  secessions 
in  1733  and  1752  the  "United  Presbyterian"  body 
is  a  development.  It  is  said  to  number  now  about 
12  per  cent,  of  the  Scotch  population. 


CHAPTEK  XIX. 


NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 


THE  successor  to  Pius  VI.  was  indebted  for  his 
elevation  to  the  exertions  of  the 
Emperor  of  Austria.  The  dispersed  car- concordat  with 
dinals  were  brought  together  at  Venice,  ^^^'^^' 
then  part  of  the  Austrian  domains,  and  their  choice  fell 
on  Chiaramonti,  who  took  the  title  of  Pius  VII.,  and 
was  shortly  enabled  by  French  reverses  to  enter  Rome 
with  suitable  pomp.  In  1801  the  Pontiff  was  engaged 
in  negotiations  with  Bonaparte.  The  First  Consul 
was  convinced  that  religion,  as  a  means  of  moral  re- 
straint, was  a  necessary  accessory  to  secular  govern- 
ment. Pius  was  naturally  desirous  to  restore  Chris- 
tianity to  France  at  any  sacrifice.  The  one  threw  up 
the  cause  of  the  Atheist  doctrinaires,  the  other  that 
of  the  non- juror  Catholics,  and  the  Revolution  was 
hallowed  by  a  Papal  Concordat.  The  Pope  recognized 
a  hierarchy  nominated  by  the  First  Consul  and 
endowed  with  very  meagre  salaries,  as  the  legitimate 
successors  of  the  non  assermentes  prelates.  He  also 
resigned  all  claims  to  interfere  in  French  ecclesiasti- 
cal affairs  without  the  sanction  of  the  Government. 
Bonaparte  further  attested  his  respect  for  the  Catholic 
faith,  by  ordering  an  observance  of  Sunday  at  the 
Government  offices,  and  providing  for  the  daily  cele- 


208     MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

bration  of  mass  at  the  Tuileries,  within  earshot  of  his 
own  study.  The  foreign  powers  generally  hailed  with 
joy  the  restoration  of  Christianity  in  France,  but  these 
proceedings  were  naturally  ungrateful  to  the  plundered 
royalist  bishops.  Thirty-six  of  them  issued  a  vigorous 
protest  from  their  places  of  exile,  when  Pius  (citing  as  a 
historical  precedent  an  episode  in  the  Donatist  schism) 
urged  that  they  should  smooth  his  path  by  a  resigna- 
tion of  their  own  just  claims. 

Europe   was   less   pleased   when   the   supple   Pius 

hallowed     the     personal    pretensions    of 

on^'papai  ten-i-  Napoleon  by  attending  his  coronation  at 

tory.  Pius'    iSTotre   Dame,  1804.     His  visit  to  Paris 

imprisonment.  ' 

was  by  no  means  devoid  of  humiliating 
incidents,  and  it  soon  became  plain  that  the  new 
Emperor  of  the  "West  would  not  assume  the  character 
of  a  Charlemagne.  Three  legations  in  the  Romagna 
had  been  seized  by  France,  and  Pius  vainly  demanded 
their  restitution  to  the  Holy  See.  Ancona,  his  most 
important  fortress,  was  occupied  by  French  troops  in 
the  Austrian  w^ar  of  1805.  To  Pius'  remonstrances 
Napoleon  coolly  replied,  that  though  the  Pope  was 
sovereign  of  Kome  he  himself  was  its  emperor.  It 
was  impossible  for  the  pontiff  to  accept  this  view  of 
his  temporal  dominion.  Henceforth  he  assumed  an 
attitude  of  dignified  resistance.  Though  Rome  itself 
was  occupied  by  the  French,  he  refused  the  invitation 
to  a  Franco-Papal  League.  The  invasion  of  the 
Quirinal  and  seizure  of  his  person  did  not  shake  his 
determination.  Pius  was  transferred  to  the  state 
prison  of  Fenestrelles,  Rome  meanwhile  being  declared 
a   free  city    and  formally  annexed  to  the   French 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY.  209 

Empire,  1809.  He  continued  obdurate  when  the 
Moscow  disasters  of  1813  induced  Napoleon  to  resort 
to  milder  methods  of  suasion,  and  at  the  time  of 
the  Emperor's  overthrow  in  1814  was  in  honourable 
captivity  at  Fontainebleau. 

The  catastrophes  which  had  succeeded  the  upheaval 
in  France  necessarily  permeated   Europe  ^ 

•^     ^  ^      Restoration 

with     conservatism.      Men     panted     for  Pius  vii.  The 

T  ,11  •       J -J     J  •  -T7I  era  of  reaction. 

peace  and  stable  institutions.  Even  Revival  of  the 
Liberal  statesmen  had  learnt  to  associate  Jesmts. 
the  cause  of  progress  with  that  of  anarchy  and  irre- 
ligion.  Of  the  theory  of  government  which  created 
the  Holy  Alliance  the  Papacy  at  once  took  advan- 
tage. Its  patronage  of  theories  of  government  and 
religion  which  seemed  moribund  at  the  end  of  last 
century  has  been  maintained  almost  uninterruptedly 
till  the  present  time.  Pius  VII.  was  restored  to  his 
temporal  dominion  with  the  goodwill  of  the  European 
powers.  He  at  once  inaugurated  the  era  of  reaction 
by  a  re-establishment  of  the  Jesuits.  Already  (1801-4) 
the  extinct  society  of  Jesus  had  been  revived  by 
Papal  decree  in  Russia  and  in  Sicily.  The  bull  of 
1814,  "Solicitudo  omnium  ecclesiarum,"  sanctioned 
its  operations  in  all  countries,  and  the  governments 
were  even  urged  to  restore  its  confiscated  property. 
Francis  Karen,  the  Provincial  of  Russia,  was  to  be 
the  General  of  the  whole  Order.  The  Bull  declared 
that  this  reversal  of  the  act  of  Clement  XIV.  was 
demanded  by  ^'  persons  of  every  class,"  and  was  justi- 
fied by  the  "  vigour  and  experience  "  of  the  Jesuits. 
*'  in  rowing  the  bark  of  St.  Peter  tossed  by  continual 
storms." 

VOL.  II.  14 


210     MANUAL  OF  CUURCU  HISTORY. 

The  Holy  Roman  Empire  had  been  ended  in  1806, 
„,  ..,     and  Austria  was  neither  able  nor  desirous 

The  re-settle- 
ment of  Europe,  to    restore  it.     From  its   ruins  rose  the 

Germanic  Confederation,  destined  itself  to  be  merged 
in  the  North  German  Empire  of  to-day.  The  Prince- 
Bishops  had  also  experienced  a  final  elfacement. 
Their  cities  and  territories  were  divided  among  the 
powers  without  regard  to  religious  differences.  The 
cession  of  Romanist  peoples  to  Protestant  rulers  did 
much  to  provoke  the  strife  about  education  and  mixed 
marriages  which  henceforth  is  so  conspicuous  in 
Germany.  Yet^more  maladroit  was  the  policy  which 
for  sixteen  years  yoked  Romanist  Belgium  to  Protest- 
ant Holland  in  the  United  Kingdom  of  the  Nether- 
lands. France  received  again  the  Bourbon  regime,  and 
the  future  relations  of  the  French  Church  to  the 
Papacy  became  the  subject  of  protracted  negotiations 
between  Pius  and  Lewis  XYIII.  It  was  finally  settled 
that  the  Concordat  of  1801  should  be  repealed,  and 
that  the  Pope  should  enjoy  the  same  rights  in  France 
as  in  the  times  of  Francis  I.  Notwithstanding  the 
poverty  and  infidelity  with  which  it  had  to  .contend, 
the  French  Church  speedily  attained  comparative 
prosperity.  But  the  old 'antagonism  of  the  Jesuit  and 
Gallican  factions  was  again  revived.  Ultramontane 
influences  were  specially  rife  after  the  accession  of 
the  reactionist  Charles  X.,  who  before  his  expulsion, 
was  forced  by  popular  clamour  to  close  the  Jesuit 
Colleges  (1828).  They  were  not  reopened  till  the 
time  of  the  second  Empire. 

Pius  VIT.  lived  till  1823.     The  other  incidents  of 
The  Popes,    his  pontificate  were  the  erection  of  a  new 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY.  211 

ecclesiastical  system  for  Germany,  and  the  conclusion 
of  concordats  with  Sardinia  and  Naples.  His  succes- 
sor, Leo  XII.,  issued  encyclics  against  pietism,  liberal 
philosophy,  Bible  societies,  and  freemasons.  He  con- 
cluded a  concordat  with  Holland ;  held  a  jubilee  in 
1824-5 ;  and  added  several  new  saints  to  the  calendar* 
Pius  YIII.  (1829),  a  man  of  letters  and  science,  appears 
to  have  been  desirous  to  effect  a  compromise  on  the 
mixed  marriages  question  in  Germany.  His  short 
reign  included  the  troubled  year  1830,  and  it  was  the 
Papal  policy  to  recognize  the  claims  of  Louis  Philippe 
and  Don  Miguel.  The  next  Pope,  Gregory  XVI., 
while  advocating  the  extreme  doctrine  of  Papal  tenure, 
proved  himself  utterly  devoid  of  ordinary  capacity  as 
a  ruler.  An  insurrection  at  Rome  caused  an  assem- 
blage of  the  Great  Powers  at  Paris,  and  the  issue  of  a 
memorandum  recommending  several  reforms,  especially 
the  admission  of  laymen  to  the  civil  offices  of  the 
Papal  government.  But  the  Pope  and  his  cardinals 
refused  to  make  the  desii^ed  changes.  Fresh  disturb- 
ances ensued;  and  Austrian  and  French  troops  occupied 
the  Papal  territory  till  1838.  Gregory's  prmcipal 
foreign  transactions  were  connected  with  the  continued 
troubles  in  Prussia.  Frederic  William  lY.  (1841) 
was  persuaded  by  the  King  of  Bavaria  to  make  con- 
cessions to  the  Romanist  party.  The  Archbishop  of 
Cologne,  who  for  his  refractory  behaviour  had  been 
imprisoned  by  this  king's  father,  now  obtained  release, 
and  religious  equality  was  shortly  ceded  to  all  Prussian 
subjects.  Pius  IX.  succeeded  to  the  Papacy  in 
1846.  The  anarchical  doctrines  of  Mazzini  had  now 
thoroughly  penetrated  the  Papal   States.     The  ncAv 


212     MANUAL   OF  CIIURCII  HISTORY. 

Pope  endeavoured  to  meet  the  rising  storm  by  playing 
the  part  of  a  liberal  ruler.     Alienation  of  the  Ultra- 
montane faction  and  exorbitant  demands  on  the  part 
of  the  humoured  radicals  were  the  consequence.    When 
the  French  Revolution  of  1848  broke  out,  Pius  was 
compelled  to  grant  a  constitution  to  the  Roman  States, 
and    expel    the    Jesuits.      But    fresh   complications 
ensued.     Count   Rossi,    the    Pope's    confidante,    was 
assassinated.     Pius   himself   had  to  flee  to  Gaeta  in 
disguise.     For  eight  months  Rome  was  under  a  re- 
publican government.      When   Pius  returned  under 
French  protection  (1849),  it  was  to  embark  on  an 
ecclesiastical  policy  of  the  most  reactionary  character. 
Even  while  coquetting  with  liberalism,  Pius  IX.  had 
Eestorationof  ^'^  ggi'^ndized  the  spiritual  pretensions  of 
Pius  IX.      the  Roman  See.     On  the  eve  of  his  own 
reactionary    expulsion  he  had  summoned  the-  Eastern 
Catholicism,  patriarchs  to  accept  the  dominion  of  the 
Papacy,  a  demand  which  received  a  severe  handling 
from  the  Byzantine  ex-Patriarch  Constantius.    "Shortly 
after  his  restoration  the  Vicars  Apostolic,  who  had 
hitherto    represented    the    Roman    government    in 
England,   were  superseded  by  a  hierarchy  of  twelve 
suffragans  under  an  Archbishop  of  Westminster.     A 
similar  measure  was  taken  in  Holland  in  1853.     The 
pretence  that  the  claims  of   the  Anglican  and  the 
Jansenist  prelates  were  illegitimate  provoked  much 
irritation,  and  England  was  for  a  while  disturbed  by 
a  *'  No  Popery  "  panic.     But  these  acts  were  of  little 
importance   in    comparison   with    the   issue  of    new 
dogmas,  which  were  henceforth    to    be  binding   on 
all  members  of  the  Roman  Church.     A  Papal  decree 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY.  213 

of  1854  made  it  henceforth  a  heresy  to  doubt  the 
Immaculate  Conception  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  A 
speculative  opinion,  declined  by  Augustine,  denounced 
by  Bernard,  and  only  kept  from  extinction  in  the 
Middle  Ages  by  the  factiousness  of  Franciscan 
schoolmen,  was  henceforth  to  be  "a  truth  contained 
in  the  original  teaching  of  the  Apostles,  and  an 
Article  of  Divine  faith."  Secure  of  the  adhesion 
of  France,  where  ISTapoleon  III.  had  restored  the 
Jesuit  ascendency,  Pius  IX.  now  revived  the 
question  of  the  Pope's  spiritual  autocracy.  We  have 
seen  how  the  chimera  of  ecclesiastical  infallibility  had 
been  limited  at  the  Council  of  Constance.  In  the 
face  of  the  decrees  of  Constance  and  the  opinions  of 
countless  Roman  divines,  Pius  IX.  declared  that  the 
Church's  infallibility  was  vested  in  her  chief  pastor 
the  Pope.  The  new  dogma  was  broached  in  an 
encyclic  of  1864.  A  so-called  CEcumenical  Council 
was  summoned  to  confirm  it  in  1869-70.  The 
Eastern  prelates  were  invited,  with  a  stipulation 
that  they  should  take  no  part  in  the  procedure  "  till 
they  professed  the  Catholic  faith  whole  and  entire." 
The  Reformed  Churches  might  send  representatives, 
who  should  be  ''  referred  to  experienced  men,  and 
have  their  difficulties  solved."  We  need  not  say  that 
in  both  quarters  tlie  invitation  was  treated  with 
contempt. 

The  gathering  of  Roman  bishops,  abbots,  generals 
of  orders,  etc.,  at  the  Vatican  attained  at    r^y^^  Vatican 
its  fullest  the  number  of    764  represen-      Council, 
tatives.      The   new   dogma  was  embodied  in  a  con- 
stitution "  de  Ecclesia  Christi,"  which  was  the  subject 


2U      MANUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

of   keen  discussion   from    Dec.    1869  to   July   1870. 

The  dislike  of    many   of    the   divines   for   this   last 

development  of  Ultramontane  pretension  was  obvious 

at   the   outset,   and   the    malcontent  party   included 

distinguished  prelates — Hefele  of  Rottenburg,  Darboy 

of  Paris,  Dupanloup  of  Orleans,  Clifford  of  Clifton. 

When  the  dogma  was  first  discussed  there  were  451 

"  placets,"    88    "  non    placets ; "    62    divines    voted 

"  placet  juxta  modum  "  {i.e.   with  modification),  and 

70  did  not  vote  at  all.      These  proportions  may  be 

taken  as  gauging  the  unbiassed  opinion  of  E-omanists 

on  the  subject.     Every  means  was  adopted  to  reduce 

the  opponent  faction.     Eventually  55  representatives 

formally  declared  their  adverse  opinion  was  unaltered, 

and  absented  themselves  from  the  final  session.     The 

Constitution    was  then  passed    with    only    2    "  non 

placets."       The    Pope    confirmed    it     by    Apostolic 

authority  July  18th,   1870.     On  the  same  day  war 

was  declared  between  France  and  Prussia,  and  in  a 

few  months  the  temporal  power  of  this  pretentious 

Pontiff  was  ended  by  Victor  Emmanuel.     The  Pope's 

assumption    of    the  role  of    a  prisoner  did  little  to 

arouse  the  sympathies  of  Romanist  countries.     Nor 

is  there  at  present  any  symptom  that  Pius'  successor, 

the  sagacious  and  accomplished  Leo  XIII. ,  will  secure 

a   reversal   of  the   measures   which   have  practically 

struck   out   the    Pope   from   the   list    of    European 

princes.       The    enlightened    reforms     of    the     new 

Government  appear  to  have  won  merited  appreciation 

in  Pome   itself,    which   is   probably   prouder   of    its 

position  as  the  centre  of   United   Italy  than  of  its 

time-honoured  connexion  with  the  Holy  See. 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY.  216 

The  external  relations  of  the  Papacy  have  been 
marked  by  much  discord.  Only  in  Spain 
and  Belgium  and  distracted  Ireland  can  and  European 
the  Eoman  Church  be  said  to  exercise  a  Governments, 
moral  sway  consistent  with  the  high  pretensions  of 
Ultramontanism.  Austria,  it  is  true,  succumbed  to 
reactionary  influences  in  1855,  and  Francis  Joseph's 
Concordat  with  Rome  seemed  likely  to  leave  nothing  of 
Joseph  II. 's  reforms  save  the  vernacular  service.  The 
placet  regium  was  resigned,  the  ecclesiastical  courts 
were  re-established,  the  education  of  the  country  was 
entrusted  exclusively  to  the  bishops.  But  these 
arrangements  were  overthrown  by  the  legislation  of 
1867-8,  as  to  civil  marriages  and  education.  The 
Concordat  itself  was  declared  to  be  suspended  on 
account  of  the  Vatican  decrees,  in  July,  1870.  Full 
civil  and  political  rights  had  been  granted  to  Protestant 
subjects  in  1859.  Of  Ireland  and  the  countenance 
given  by  the  Irish  priesthood  to  the  crimes  of  political 
agitators  there  is  no  need  to  speak.  The  Vaticanism 
of  Belgium  is  partly  the  result  of  the  attempt  to 
fuse  in  one  kingdom  tw^o  nations  differing  in  religion, 
occupation,  and  antecedents.  The  revolution  of  1 830 
was  aided  by  a  combination  of  the  Jesuits  with  the 
ultra-radicals.  The  constitution  of  the  new  Belgian 
kingdom  made  the  Church  independent  of  the  State, 
and  at  the  same  time  ceded  freedom  of  worship  to 
all  religions.  The  intolerant  attitude  of  the  Vatican 
in  regard  to  mixed  education  has  recently  developed 
in  Belgium  a  strong  antagonism  to  the  "clericals," 
and  in  the  upper  classes  at  least  Ultramontanism  has 
lost  its  hold.     Turning  to  Fiance  we  notice  that  the 


216     MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

fall  of  the  second  Empire  at  once  revealed  the  fact 
that  the  artificial  Christianity  of  the  Jesuits  had 
struck  root  only  in  the  rural  districts.  Vaticanism  is 
disowned  by  almost  all  the  intellect  and  culture  of 
France,  and  hostility  to  the  clericals  has  been  a 
prominent  feature  in  recent  legislative  enactments. 
The  bigoted  irreligion  of  1792  from  time  to  time 
recovers  its  ascendency,  and  so-called  LiberaHsm  has 
avenged  itself,  not  only  on  the  Jesuits  and  the 
working  clergy,  but  on  many  charitable  organisations 
associated  with  the  Catholic  religion.  In  Germany 
TJltramontanism  has  been  countered  and  foiled  by 
the  iron  will  of  her  great  statesman.  The  old 
squabbles  about  mixed  marriages  and  education  have 
been  disposed  of  by  the  steady  anti-Roman  strategy 
of  the  Kulturkampf .  We  tabulate  the  chief  results  : 
the  subordination  of  the  hierarchy  in  Prussia  to  a 
minister  of  religion  appointed  by  the  State,  1871  ; 
the  ejection  of  Jesuits  and  other  Orders  from  the 
German  Empire,  1872-3;  the  enactment  that  German 
priests  shall  go  through  the  curriculum  of  a  German 
university,  and  the  prohibition  of  new  theological 
colleges,  1873 ;  penalties  laid  on  priests  officiating 
without  a  Government  certificate,  1874 ;  arrange- 
ments for  the  State  supervision  of  the  religious 
instruction  given  to  Koman  Catholic  children,  1876. 
In  Spain  and  Portugal  successive  revolutions  have 
inflicted  on  the  Church  considerable  amercements 
and  limitations  of  privileges,  since  the  beginning  of 
the  century.  It  seems  that  here,  as  in  Italy,  France, 
and  Belgium,  a  strong  current  of  unbelief  flows 
underneath   the   external   profession    of    Romanism, 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY.  217 

and  that  the  stronghold  of  the  priests  is  the  ignorance 
of  the  lower  orders.  The  Romanism  of  England, 
strengthened  by  the  "Papal  aggression"  of  1850, 
has  distinguished  itself  by  successful  proselytism 
in  every  rank  of  life.  But  we  search  in  vain  on 
the  Continent  for  the  anomalous  spectacle  of  men  of 
culture  and  intellect  flocking  to  the  Roman  fold,  to 
stupefy  the  craving  for  a  reasonable  faith  with  the 
anodyne  of  modern  Ultramontanism. 

It  is,  indeed,  in  respect  of  moral  prestige,  rather 
than  of  territory,  that  the  losses  of  the 

1  1        mi         /¥.  r>  Moral  losses  of 

Fapacy  are  to  be  measured.  The  eirect  or  Romanism.  The 
the  Vatican  policy  has  been  to  relegate  to 
unbelief  numbers  who  would  have  accepted  the  Ca- 
tholicism of  a  Du  Pin,  a  Pascal,  or  an  Arnauld.  As 
yet  no  well-laid  middle  path  diverts  the  steps  of  those 
for  whom  the  mutual  contradictions  of  infallible 
Popes  and  Councils  are  not  satisfactorily  explained 
by  the  modern  Roman  doctrine  of  theological  "  evo- 
lution." The  schism  of  Ronge  and  Czerki  (pro- 
voked by  the  absolutory  exhibition  of  the  "  seam- 
less coat "  at  Treves)  failed  because  of  its  connexion 
with  the  cause  of  political  anarchy,  and  the  "  German 
Catholic  Church"  of  1845  is  now  unknown.  Of  the 
*'  Old  Catholic  "  movement  it  is  impossible  as  yet  to 
speak  hopefully.  With  the  history  of  this  schism  we 
close  our  account  of  the  fortunes  of  Romanism. 

When  the  Vatican  decree  of  1870  destroyed  all  hope  of  accom- 
modating the  liberal  Catholicism  of  old  times  to  the  Ultramontane 
theories,  Dollinger  and  Reinkens  took  measures  to  combine  the 
malcontents  in  a  new  community.  Dollinger  was  generally  recog- 
nised as  one  of  the  foremost  Eoman  theologians,  and  had  headed 
the  remonstrance  of  the  German  Universities  against  the  Vatican 


218     MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

dogma.  The  Jansenist  episcopate  of  Holland  was  appealed  to ; 
and  by  its  intervention  Reinkens  received  canonical  consecration 
as  the  first  "  Old  Catholic  "  bishop  of  Germany.  In  Switzerland 
the  first  bishop  was  Herzog,  consecrated  187G.  The  Old  Catholics 
began  by  introducing  the  vernacular  mass,  abolishing  the  invoca- 
tion of  saints,  and  reducing  the  number  of  saints'  days.  They 
have  held  various  Conferences  for  the  consideration  of  other 
reforms.  Prominent  divines  from  the  Eastern  and  Anglican  bodies 
have  attended  these  synods,  without  committing  their  own  Churches 
to  projects  of  organic  union.  The  chief  difficulty  of  the  Old 
Catholics  has  been  the  question  of  clerical  celibacy.  To  abolish  a 
restriction  so  dear  to  superstition,  so  capable  of  plausible  defence, 
would,  it  was  foreseen,  be  a  step  entailing  disastrous  consequences. 
These  consequences  were  boldly  faced  by  the  synod  of  1878,  with 
the  result  that  Dollinger  and  many  others  withdrew  from  the 
German  movement,  and  that  in  Switzerland,  according  to  Herzog's 
testimony,  thousands  of  adherents  were  lost.  Of  the  present 
prospects  of  the  Old  Catholics  we  have  very  conflicting  accounts. 
The  latest  statistics  represent  them  as  numbering  about  70,000 
in  Germany,  and  about  80,000  in  Switzerland. 

Lutheranism   has   assumed   a  very  different  form 
from  that  depicted  in  the  Confession    of 

Lutheranism  ^  /    n     . 

in  Germany.  Augsburg.  Essentially  (albeit  at  first 
^^men1;rof°^"  un^^ittingly)  a  progressive  religion,  it  has 
theology,  yielded  much — possibly  too  much — to  the 
spirit  of  an  age,  fertile  in  discovery,  rapid  in  intellectual 
advance,  impatient  of  pedantic  restraint.  The  old 
Lutheran  scheme,  with  its  high  ritual  and  dogma  of 
consubstantiation,  has  now  probably  few  adherents 
among  educated  Germans  of  Europe  or  America.  The 
influence  of  the  18th  century  philosophers  was,  as  we 
have  seen,  eminently  destructive.  The  Peace  of  1815 
ushered  in  a  period,  certainly  marked  by  higher  moral 
aims,  greater  earnestness,  deeper  search  for  truth. 
But  in  Germany  these  traits  cannot  be  connected  with 
any  triumphs  of  the  ancient  dogmatism.    The  genius  of 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY.  219 

the  restoration  of  faith  in  Germany  was  Schleiermacher, 
But  faith  to  Schleiermacher  meant  a  theosophy  of 
purely  subjective  character.  The  aim  is  that  of  many 
Catholic  mystics — the  sinking  personal  agency  in  a 
realization  of  Gocl.  But  the  old  incentives  to  this  aim 
have  vanished.  Miracles  become  a  fabulous  garb  for 
the  eternal  truths  of  morality.  Dogma  is  merely  an 
attempt  to  present  in  logical  form  the  emotions  of  the 
Christlike  character.  De  Wette  and  Hase  combined 
the  systems  of  Jacobi  and  Schleiermacher,  and  gave  to 
the  new  theology  a  more  strictly  rationahstic  colouring. 
There  was  also  the  Hegelian  school,  identifying  the 
essence  of  religion  with  the  "  Knowledge  of  the 
Absolute."  Intellect  here  occupies  the  place  that 
Schleiermacher  assigns  to  feeling.  Finally,  the  philo- 
sophy of  Hegel,  combined  with  the  new  critical 
principles  of  Schleiermacher,  evolved  the  Christianity 
of  Strauss'  "  Leben  Jesu,"  1835.  Strauss  reduces  all 
recorded  supernatural  events  to  the  level  of  myths. 
"  Christ  is  but  an  idea,  or  if  He  ever  existed  He  was 
adopted  by  the  Church  as  an  expression  of  an  idea, 
the  true  meaning  of  which  is  to  be  discovered  by  the 
philosophy  of  the  Absolute." 

More  permanent,  and   more   generally  intelligible 
have  been  the  results  of  the  application 
of    literary   criticism    to    the    Scriptures     ^ritidsm 
by  the   laborious  German  commentators. 
The  attempts  of  Protestants  of  the  Pietist  school  to 
screen   these   writings   from   the   light    of   historical 
scrutiny  have  recoiled,  as  such  attempts  must  ever 
recoil;  and  Bibliolatry  has  incurred  in  the  form  of 
precipitate  revulsions  the  same  penalties  as  Vatican- 


220     MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

ism.  The  time  has  not  yet  come  for  a  precise 
enumeration  of  the  important  results  attained  in 
the  department  of  BibHcal  study.  It  is  certain 
that  few  qualified  commentators,  even  in  England, 
now  bring  to  this  subject  the  a  jmori  assumptions 
that  were  regarded  as  essential  in  the  preceding 
generation.  But  it  is  equally  evident  that  many  of 
the  Tubingen  conclusions  have  been  shown  to  be 
utterly  unfounded.  Old  theories  of  Biblical  inspira- 
tion have  undoubtedly  been  permanently  shattered. 
But  the  general  authenticity  of  the  Scriptures  appears 
to  stand,  at  least  sufiiciently  unimpaired  for  all  prac- 
tical purposes.  We  shall  content  ourselves  with 
tabulating  the  most  noted  theories  of  German  scholar- 
ship, without  attempting  to  indicate  where  we  conceive 
them  to  outrun  the  limits  of  sober  criticism. 

In  the  New  Testament,  Baur,  1835,  introduced  a 
principle  of  design,  as  the  key  to  future  exegesis.  Stress 
is  laid  on  the  conflict  in  the  early  Church  between  the 
Pauline  and  Petrine  schools.  The  true  foundations 
of  Christianity  are  the  genuine  Pauline  Epistles — 
Corinthians,  Bomans,  and  Galatians.  The  Acts  are 
the  production  of  a  conciliatory  school,  which  tried 
to  harmonize  the  Pauline  teaching  with  that  of  the 
Petrine  faction,  cir.  a.d.  175.  The  Gospels  are  also 
compiled  with  design.  Many  arguments  are  urged  in 
proof  of  the  view  that  they  are  only  recensions 
of  earlier  documents  now  lost.  Baur's  theories  gave 
a  colouring  to  other  provinces  of  theology.  A  similar 
treatment  of  the  Old  Testament  has  been  elaborated 
by  Beuss,  Wellhausen,  Kuenen,  and  other  noted 
Hebraists.     The  key  here  is  a  conflict  of  the  subjec- 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY.  221 

tive  and  objective  types  of  religion,  personified 
respectively  by  the  Prophets  and  the  Priests.  The 
Levitical  system  becomes  a  bold  innovation  of 
the  Sacerdotal  party  in  times  succeeding  the  Baby- 
lonish Captivity.  That  it  is  attributed  to  Moses  is 
an  anomaly  that  finds  parallels  in  other  ancient 
legislative  systems.  For  altered  views  of  the  Old 
Testament  the  world  was  already  prepared  by  Ewald, 
whose  "Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel"  was  the  first 
attempt  to  approach  the  literary  history  and 
doctrinal  development  of  the  Jews  in  a  scientific 
spirit.  By  this  great  Hebraist  all  events  prior  to 
the  Exodus  were  relegated  to  the  province  of  primi- 
tive legend.  But  the  pietist  tone  of  Ewald  and  the 
deference  paid  to  his  own  faculty  of  intuition  are  at 
variance  with  the  professedly  inductive  system  of 
Baur,  to  whom  this  critic  was  in  his  lifetime  strongly 
opposed.  A  somewhat  similar  combination  of  pietism 
and  aggressive  criticism  appear  in  the  great  Church- 
historian  Neander,  who  thus  differs  from  the 
strictly  rationalistic  Gieseler,  Exegesis  of  a  more 
conservative  type  has  been  ably  represented  by 
Delitzsch,  Keil,  Lange,  Stier,  Meyer,  Olshausen,  and 
others.  The  old  Puritan  views  of  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
tures survive  in  the  school  of  Hengstenberg.  These 
are  but  a  few  of  the  many  names  which  have  done 
honour  to  German  scholarship  in  departments  to 
which  our  own  country  has  contributed  little  really 
original  matter. 

The  decline  of  dogmatic  theology  prepared  the 
way  for  a  corporate  union  of  the  Lutherans 
and  Calvinists.     The    procedure  in  this  regard    has 


222     MANUAL   OF  CUURCII  HISTORY. 

been  marked  by  that  Byzantinism  which  has  from 
Union  of  ^^®  ^^^^  characterised  the  Protestantism 
^RefoSST*^^^  Germany.  Under  Frederic  William 
Germany,  n.  the  consistories  of  Prussia  were 
superseded  by  royal  Boards  for  administration  of 
ecclesiastical  business  (1815).  In  1817  this  king 
issued  orders  for  a  union  of  his  Lutheran  and 
Calvinist  subjects.  Dogmatic  standards  were 
ignored,  and  the  basis  of  the  amalgamation  was  a 
colourless  liturgy  prepared  by  the  sovereign  himself 
for  the  use  of  his  "United  Evangelical  Church." 
The  high  Lutherans  who  offered  resistance  were 
treated  as  dangerous  sectaries.  Hundreds  of  them 
were  compelled  to  emigrate  to  America.  The  work 
was  completed  by  a  Cabinet  order  of  1839,  abolishing 
the  very  name  of  Protestant.  The  example  of 
Prussia  was  followed  in  other  German  states.  Hesse 
Cassel,  Baden,  Nassau,  Hesse  Darmstadt,  and  the 
Palatinate  of  Bavaria  were  among  the  earliest  to 
effect  an  amalgamation  of  anti-Roman  elements, 
on  the  Prussian  model.  The  spiritual  autocracy  of 
the  supreme  magistrates  was  subsequently  modified 
by  cessions  of  limited  synodal  constitutions.  The 
dukes  and  princes,  however,  remained  in  fact  the 
summi  episcopi.  Since  1870  the  petty  jurisdictions 
have  been  necessarily  centralised,  and  the  drift  of  all 
this  ecclesiastical  procedure  is  to  make  the  Emperor 
the  Pope  of  Germany. 

Brighter  have  been  the  fortunes  of  Luther's  symbols 
in  the  north.  In  Sweden  Lutheranism,  on  a  basis  of 
episcopal  organisation,  holds  its  ground,  and  until 
lately    no*  other  religion   was    tolerated.     Here    the 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY.  223 

Pietist    sect   of    "Eeaders"  for  many  years  suffered 
persecution  :  and  as  recently  as  1858  six  , 

^  1         -r-.  lutneranism  in 

clergymen  who  were  converted  to  Eoman-  Sweden.Norway, 
ism  were  condemned  to  exile.  Norway  ^'^^  ' 
adopted  the  principles  of  religious  toleration  in  1844. 
It  has  been  disturbed  by  the  influences  of  modern 
rationalism,  but  at  present  the  tenets  of  classical 
Lutheranism  appear  likely  to  hold  their  ground. 
Denmark  was  strictly  Lutheran  till  1849,  when  a  new 
constitution  made  the  Government  democratic  in 
character,  and  allowed  full  freedom  of  religion.  The 
influx  of  rationalism  was  followed  by  the  attempts 
of  the  Government  to  enforce  a  new  liturgy.  This 
was  successfully  resisted  by  the  exertions  of  the 
conservative  divine  Grundtvig. 

The  wreck  of  Calvinism  is  even  more  striking  than 
that  of  the  rival  organization.     The  fate  _,,    c  i  •  •  ti 
of  Servetus  was  avenged  when  the  "  vener-    churches  in 
able  company"  of  Geneva  were  themselves    France,  and' 
taxed  with  disowning  the  divinity  of  our        °  *°  ' 
Lord,  in  1817.     Their  attempt  to  suppress  dogmatic 
teaching  was  followed  by  various  schisms.     No  scien- 
tific  basis   has    yet   been   found   for   the   revival   of 
Keformed  religion   in  Switzerland,    which   has   been 
subject  to  pietistic,  rationalist,  and  reactionary  move- 
ments which  we  have  no  space  to  recount.     Similar 
is  the  condition  of  the  Reformed  in  France.     Here 
the   fundamental    principle   of    Calvin's   polity   was 
ousted  by  Napoleon  himself.      The  Imperial  scheme 
superseded   the   Provincial    Assembly   by    a    synode 
d'arrondissement  of   ten   members,  w4io   were  to   be 
absolutely  [under   State   control.     Admission   to   the 


224     MA.yrAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

minor  representative  bodies,  the  eglises  consistor tales, 
was  to  be  determined  by  taxable  position.  Hence- 
forth the  Reformed  Church  of  France  was  subsidized 
by  the  State.  It  became  a  prey  to  the  conflicting 
spirits  of  rationalism  and  methodism,  and  in  1849 
the  ministers  issued  a  protest  against  the  old  Con- 
fession of  La  Rochelle.  Adolphe  Monod,  the  most 
important  divine  of  this  Church,  was  removed  from 
his  charge  on  the  ground  of  Calvinism.  At  present 
there  seems  little  prospect  of  the  various  embodiments 
of  French  dogmatic  Protestantism  attaining  organic 
unity.  Of  free-thought  in  France  the  chief  outcome 
has  been  the  Positivism  of  Comte,  which  appropriates 
the  Christian  principle  "  vivre  'pour  altrui"  but 
excludes  all  belief  in  God  and  immortality  as  a  dream 
of  the  world's  childhood.  On  this  system,  with  its 
attractive  classification  of  the  sciences,  its  repudiation 
of  all  the  speculative  philosophy  of  the  metaphysicians, 
its  final  acceptance  of  the  Catholic  machinery  of 
cults  and  hagiologies,  w^e  cannot  attempt  to  ex- 
patiate. It  has  found  many  admirers  of  high  intel- 
lectual capacity  in  England,  probably  more  than  in 
France  or  Germany.  We  search  in  vain  for  true 
disciples  of  Calvin  in  the  former  stronghold  of  the 
"  Five  Articles."  With  the  changes  of  1795,  Holland 
parted  finally  with  the  rigours  of  a  Calvinistic  eccle- 
siastical constitution.  The  French  dominion  accorded 
a  perfect  equality  to  all  religions,  and  the  sudden 
relaxation  opened  a  way  for  the  free-thinking  spirit 
which  has  since  largely  prevailed.  The  Constitution 
of  1816  gave  the  Dutch  Church  a  full  representative 
organisation,  but  made  it  subject  in  several  particulars 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY.  225 

to  a  royal  placet.  Greater  freedom  was  awarded  by 
the  new  constitution  of  1852.  But  little  sympathy 
exists  for  either  the  ecclesiastical  polity  or  the  predes- 
tinarian  dogmas  of  Calvin.  The  general  synod  in 
1854  passed  a  decree,  limiting  the  essentials  of  religion 
to  veneration  for  the  Holy  Scriptures  and  faith  in 
the  Redeemer  of  sinners,  and  no  stricter  tests  have 
since  been  admitted. 

The  political  relations  of  the  Church  of  England 
have  been  re-adjusted  in  this  century  by 
the  removal  of  the  civil  disabilities  which  England.  Con- 
were  hitherto  the  penalty  of  Romanism  Romanists  and 
and  non-conformity.  The  elective  franchise  ^^^senters. 
had  been  ceded  to  Irish  Roman  Catholics  in  1793. 
The  Union  followed.  In  the  united  Parliaments  the 
Irish  party  headed  the  cry  for  Catholic  "  emancipa- 
tion." The  dull  bigotry  of  George  III.  for  a  while 
impeded  even  the  abrogation  of  the  antiquated 
Corporation  and  Test  Acts.  Measures  of  relief  were 
subsequently  postponed  by  the  conservatism  of  the 
House  of  Lords,  by  popular  dread  of  the  growing 
Romanist  influence,  by  just  suspicion  of  their  fautor 
Ireland.  In  1828,  however,  the  pressure  of  O'Connell 
and  the  Catholic  association  overcame  all  opposition. 
The  repeal  of  the  two  Acts,  1828,  was  followed  by  the 
Catholic  Relief  Bill,  and  in  April,  1829,  three  Ptomanist 
peers  took  their  seats  in  the  Upper  House.  All  civil 
disabilities  on  religious  grounds  were  now  removed. 
The  English  Romanists  were  satisfied.  But  demands 
for  fresh  concessions  were  at  once  pressed  by  Ireland. 
Henceforward  the  "  Catholic  rent  "  was  devoted  to  the 
support  of  an  agitation  against  the  Irish  Church  and 

VOL.  IT.  15 


226      MANUAL  OF  CIIURCII  HISTORY. 

the  Union.  In  deference  to  its  Irish  supporters  tlie 
Government  of  1833  decreed  the  abolition  of  the 
vestry  cess.  In  Heu  of  this  charge,  provision  was  made 
for  the  Irish  clergy  by  the  suppression  of  ten  sees  and 
chapters.  Incited  by  the  example  of  the  Romanists, 
the  English  Dissenters  now  raised  a  cry  against  the 
injustice  of  church-rates.  After  a  protracted  dispute 
this  tax  dropped  into  desuetude,  though  not  formally 
abolished  till  1868.  To  ensure  perfect  equality^  the 
religious  tests  for  University  degrees  were  swept  away 
in  1856,  and  those  for  admission  to  fellowships 
in  1871.  It  was  hoped  that  all  conceivable  non- 
conformist grievances  were  thus  removed.  The  political 
Dissenters,  however,  now  entered  on  a  campaign 
against  the  "  State  connexion  "  of  the  English  Church. 
Social  jealousy  rather  than  religious  sentiment 
prompts  their  present  cry  for  "  Disestablishment,"  a 
measure  w^hich  would  certainly  rob  the  rural  churches 
of  all  vitality,  and  doubtless  much  injure  the  interests 
of  culture  and  morality.  The  clamour  has  found  a 
pretext  in  the  extreme  concessions  which  agitation 
secured  for  the  Komanists  of  Ireland,  where  however, 
the  Reformed  Establishment  occupied  a  very  different 
footing.  In  1844  the  existence  of  the  Roman  hier- 
archy of  Ireland  was  statutably  recognised.  Kext  year 
a  grant  of  £20,000  a  year  was  made  to  the  college 
at  Maynooth.  In  1869  the  attempts  to  conciliate 
the  sister  island  were  crowned  by  the  Disestablishment 
of  the  Irish  Church,  and  the  appropriation  of  its 
revenues  to  public  purposes. 

The   internal   history  of    the  English  Church  has 
presented  episodes  of   most  interest'ng  character,  to 


EI^ETEENTH  CENTURY.  227 

which  we  cannot  attempt  to  do  justice  in  a  few  lines. 
At  a  time  when  the  prospects  of  the  The  Anglo- 
national  Church  seemed  darkest,  the  ^gJ;^\^°^Q^j^gj. 
Angio-CathoHc  school  sprang  up,  protest-  agencies, 
ing  against  the  neglect  of  sacramental  and  objective 
agencies,  which  had  characterised  the  Anglicanism  of 
the  last  hundred  years.  The  movement  began  with 
the  Tractarians  of  Oxford  in  1827.  In  the  face  of 
much  opposition,  it  has  wrought  a  complete  change 
in  the  tenets,  practices,  and  tastes  of  most  Anglican 
worshippers.  The  unbroken  continuity  of  the  English 
Church — the  existence  of  a  Divinely  constituted  eccle- 
siastical polity — the  importance  of  the  Eucharist  as  the 
central  act  of  Christian  worship — the  appeal  of  religion 
to  the  senses  and  emotions — these  have  been  the  in- 
centives to  a  religious  enthusiasm  which  strikingly 
contrasts  with  the  deadness  of  the  Reformed  bodies 
abroad. 

That  vast  sums  have  been  spent  yearly  on  church 
"  restoration "  is  an  indication  of  a  wide-spread 
sentiment,  favourable  to  the  causes  of  piety  and 
culture.  Yet  more  satisfactory  is  the  rise  of  count- 
less new  fabrics  in  the  congested  urban  districts. 
These  results  are  to  a  large  extent  traceable  to  the 
influence  of  the  new  theology.  Though  not  the 
author  of  modei^  English  philanthropy,  nor  even 
its  chief  factor,  the  Anglo-Catholics  have  thrown  into  it 
fresh  incentives.  Their  various  guilds,  associations, 
and  means  of  organization  have  done  much  to  implant 
in  the  lower  orders  a  love  of  the  Established  Church. 
To  discuss  the  responsibilities  of  the  new  school  in 
regard  to  the  numerous  perversions  to  Romanism  that 


228     MANUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

have  also  maiked  its  ascendency  is  not  our  province. 
Still  less  can  we  enter  into  the  puerile  controversies 
and  lawsuits,  which  have  been  provoked  by  the  ritual- 
istic eccentricities  of  its  extreme  partisans.  Where 
the  Anglican  system  has  failed  as  yet  to  exercise 
satisfactory  influence  is  in  the  intellectual  province. 
Questions  are  as  yet  untouched,  which  in  Germany  and 
even  in  Scotland  are  the  subject  of  keen  disquisition, 
and  for  which  Romanism  itself  is  preparing  its  solu- 
tion.* Text-tied,  and  narrow  in  its  sympathies,  the 
Evangelical  party  will  doubtless  always  fail  to 
grapple  with  such  problems.  Whether  the  greater 
elasticity  of  the  Anglo-CathoHc  school  will  enable  it  to 
dispose  of  them,  in  spite  of  its  professedly  dogmatic 
proclivities,  remains  to  be  seen.  Hopes  of  an  ade- 
quate treatment  of  such  questions  have  been  further 
deferred  by  the  recent  Disestablishment  scare.  The 
chief  collisions  of  this  Church  with  the  modern  school 
of  criticism  are  connected  with  the  Hampden  case, 
1848,  the  publication  of  "Essays  and  Reviews," 
1860,  and  the  adoption  of  the  view  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment commonly  accepted  in  Germany,  by  Bishop 
Oolenso.  Perhaps  the  most  effective  attempts  to 
adapt  the  Anglican  position  to  the  nineteenth-century 
zeit-geist  have  been  those  of  Kingsley,  Maurice,  and 
the  leaders  of  the  so-called  Broad  Church  school.  A 
quasi-revival  of  Convocation  was  ceded  to  this  Church 
in  1854.  But  it  has  in  no  w^ay  limited  episcopal 
autocracy.  Numerous  channels  of  talk  have  been 
opened  in  the  form  of  congresses  and  associations,  but 

*  See  e.g.,  Mr,  Mivart's  articles  in  the  July  and  December 
numbers  of  the  Nineteenth  Century.,  1887. 


NIXETEENTU  CENTURY,  229 

the  old  right  of  synodical  action  is  still  denied  to  the 
clergy.  This  is  the  more  keenly  felt,  now  that  the 
Government,  which  appoints  the  bishops,  is  not  pledged 
to  Anglican  principles.  A  marvellous  extension  of 
Anglican  organisations  by  missionary  and  other 
agencies  in  the  colonies  and  foreign  parts  will  be 
found  recorded  in  this  Church's  statistical  works. 

The  English  sects  may  be  numbered  by  hundreds. 
The  fortunes  of  most  of  the  parent  bodies  ^    ,.  ^     ^ 

^  English  sects. 

have  been  already  traced  out.  It  re- 
mains to  notice  that  the  Puritanism  which  formed 
the  pretext  for  secession  in  former  days  is  fast 
disappearing.  Many  usages  which  fifty  years  ago 
sober  Anglicans  scouted  as  savouring  of  Rome  may 
now  be  found  in  nonconformist  chapels.  The  chief 
fautors  of  the  sects  are  the  lower-middle  classes, 
nor  save  in  the  case  of  new  phases  of  pietistic 
enthusiasm,  have  they  found  much  favour  with  men 
of  education.  An  exception  to  this  rule  is  furnished 
by  the  Unitarian  body,  which  has  long  maintained 
a  high  intellectual  character. 

No  appreciable  alterations  have  taken  place  in  the 
tenets  of  the  Scotch  Kirk,  which  is  now  Scotland.  The 
the  last   asylum    of   classical   Calvinism,  gc^^  onwa 
Yet  even  here  attempts  have  been  made  Scotch  Episco- 

^  .  palians.    The 

to  improve  the  external  accessories  of  irvingites. 
worship.  An  attack  on  Dr.  Lee  for  reading  prayers 
from  a  printed  form  and  introducing  a  harmonium 
was  quashed  by  the  Committee  of  Assembly,  and 
since  1867  the  use  of  organs  has  been  permitted. 
The  Kirk  has  been  chiefly  exercised  about  the  patron- 
age question,  which  after   1834   produced  a  furious 


230     MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

dispute,  resulting  in  the  formation  of  the  "Free 
Church  of  Scotland"  in  1843.  With  the  view  of 
making  the  existent  system  less  unpopular,  the 
General  Assembly  of  1834  had  limited  the  rights 
of  patrons  by  a  Veto  Act.  This  allowed  the  majority 
of  heads  of  families  to  cancel  a  ministerial  appoint- 
ment, without  specifying  any  tangible  reasons.  The 
rejection  of  a  presentee  in  the  parish  of  Auchterarder 
brought  the  Veto  Act  into  the  courts  of  law,  which 
declared  it  illegal.  The  General  Assembly  however 
refused  to  retrace  its  steps.  It  proceeded  to  harass 
seven  ministers  of  the  Strathbogie  presbytery  for 
appointing  the  "trials"  of  Mr.  Edwards,  a  presentee 
who  came  before  them  encumbered  with  objections. 
"While  the  ministers  were  assailed  with  spiritual 
censures  on  the  one  side,  an  action  for  damages 
menaced  them  on  the  other.  Five  of  the  seven,  there- 
fore, decided  to  induct  Mr.  Edwards  in  compliance 
with  the  secular  law.  They  were  thereupon  deposed 
by  the  Assembly,  as  "  denying  the  truth  of  God's 
holy  word,"  "  disowning  the  Lord  Jesus,"  etc. 
Similar  cases  occurred  in  other  parishes.  But  the 
high  pretensions  of  the  "  non-intrusionist "  party 
were  now  impaired  by  the  courts'  awarding  sub- 
stantial damages  to  the  rejected  presentee  of 
Auchterarder.  Attempts  to  secure  a  recognition 
of  the  Yeto  Act  by  Parliament  proved  fruitless. 
A  letter  from  the  Queen  declared  that  the  settle- 
ment of  the  Presbyterian  Kirk  concluded  in  1712 
was  final.  Chalmers,  Candlish,  and  some  340 
ministers  hereupon  decided  to  leave  the  Scotch 
Establishment.        Their    secession    was    immediately 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY.  231 

followed  by  the  foundation  of  the  Free  Church, 
which  is  now  said  to  number  22  per  cent, 
of  the  Scotch  population.  In  recent  times  the 
principle  of  the  Veto  has  been  ceded  to  the  Kirk 
by  the  Scotch  Benefices  Act,  but  there  seems  little 
chance  of  the  schism  being  closed.  The  Episcopal 
Church  of  Scotland,  which  has  had  fair  scope  for 
development  since  1792,  appears  to  be  gaining  ground 
among  the  upper  classes  of  Scotland.  Its  chief  con- 
troversies have  related  to  matters  of  ritual,  and  the 
question  of  retaining  the  Communion  Office  of  1764. 
It  only  remains  to  notice  that  singular  excrescence 
of  Scotch  Presbyterianism,  the  "  Catholic  Apostolic 
Church."  Irving,  a  noted  Scotch  preacher  in 
London,  conceived  an  idea  that  the  miraculous 
powers  of  the  early  Church  were  revived  in  his 
congregation,  1830.  Outbreaks  of  hysteria  were 
mistaken  for  the  gift  of  tongues.  It  was  supposed 
that  the  office  of  the  Apostleship  was  restored. 
Persons  of  wealth  and  position  credited  this  new 
revelation,  and  the  Irvingites  formed  themselves  into 
a  new  religious  body,  with  a  constitution  of  12 
Apostles  and  60  Evangelists,  and  with  the  title 
"  Catholic  Apostolic."  The  services  of  these  re- 
ligionists rival  in  pomp  those  of  the  Roman  Church. 
The  Liturgy,  which  received  its  present  form  in  1842, 
is  mainly  taken  from  the  English  Prayer-book.  At 
the  head  of  each  congregation  is  an  ''  Angel,"  under 
whom  are  Priests  and  Deacons.  The  central  fane 
of  this  body  is  the  splendid  edifice  in  Gordon  Square. 
The  statistics  give  47  registered  "  Catholic  Apostolic  " 
Churches  in  England  and  Wales. 


232      MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

We  have  traced  the  fortunes  of  Christianity  from 
its  dawn.  We  leave  it  utterly  bereft  of 
'organic  unity, —  its  adherents  differing 
widely  in  respect  to  matters  of  doctrine,  its  com- 
ponent bodies  standing  apart  in  almost  primitive 
disintegration.  The  very  virtues  of  the  age  prevent 
it  from  realizing  the  damaging  effects  of  such  disunion. 
Not  only  are  heresy  and  schism  no  longer  punish- 
able by  cruel  deaths ;  the  principles  of  religious 
tolerance  have  thoroughly  permeated  society,  and 
are  practically  accepted  by  men  of  every  shade  of 
religious  opinion,  without  regard  to  the  anathemas 
of  Popes,  Councils,  or  Consistories.  Certainly  the 
triumphs  of  modern  Christianity  in  the  ethical 
province  more  than  compensate  for  any  loss  of  corporate 
cohesion.  Working  through  ecclesiastical  organizations 
of  most  varied  character,  its  spirit  has  here  achieved 
victories  which  the  ages  of  organic  unity  never 
attempted.  The  abolition  of  slavery — the  countless 
institutions  for  raising  the  moral  and  social  con- 
dition of  the  poorer  classes — the  keen  realization  of 
the  sanctity  of  human  life — the  universal  de- 
precation of  needless  cruelties  in  war  and  in  police 
— these  are  but  a  few  instances  of  the  advance  of 
Christian  civilization.  Whether  the  ethical  and 
practical  influences  which  owe  their  existence  to 
the  Saviour's  teaching  will  ever  again  be  cen- 
tralized in  a  united  Christian  Church,  and  if  so 
by  what  concordats  or  concessions  on  the  part  of  the 
representative  bodies  of  Christianity,  it  is  at  present 
impossible  to  foresee. 


LIST   OF   SOVEREIGNS   AND    POPES. 

FROM  1054  ONWARDS. 
EMPEKOES. 


Henry  III.  (the  Black)  .  1039 
Henry  IV.  .  .  .  1056 
(Rudolf  of  Swabia,  rival)  1077 
(Hermann  of  Luxemburg, 

rival)  ....  1081 
(Conrad     of    Franconia, 

rival)  ....  1093 
Henry  V.  .  .  .  1106 
Lothairll.      .         .         .  1125 

*  Conrad  III.  .  .  1138 
Frederic  I.  (Barbarossa)  1152 
Henry  VI.       .         .         .  1190 

*  PhiUp,  Otho  IV.  (rivals)  1197 
Otho  IV.  .  .  .  1208 
Frederic  11.  .  .  .  1212 
(Henry  Raspe,  rival)  .  1246 
(William      of      Holland, 

rival)  .         .         1246-7 

♦Conrad  IV.  .         .  1250 

Interregnum,  .         .         .  1254 

*  Richard  (Earl  of  Corn- 
wall), *  Alfonso  (King 

of  Castile),  rivals         .  1257 

*  Rudolf  I.  (of  Hapsburg)  1273 

*  AdoK  (of  Nassau)         .  1292 

*  Albert  I.  (of  Hapsburg)  1298 
Henry  VII.  (of  Luxem- 
burg) .         .         .1308 

Lewis  IV.  (of  Bavaria)    .1314 
(Frederic     of      Austria, 
rival)  .... 


I    Charles  IV.  (of  Luxem- 
!       burg).         .         .         .  1347 
(Gunther   of    Schwartz- 
burg,  rival) 

*  Wenzel  (of  Luxemburg)  1378 

*  Rupert  (of  the  Palati- 

nate) ,         .         .         .1400 
Sigismund    (of    Luxem- 
burg).        .         .         .  1410 
(Jobst  of  Moravia,  rival) 

*  Albert   II.    (of    Haps- 

burg f  )       .         .         .  1438 
Frederic  III.  .         .         .  1440 

*  Maximilian  I.       .         .  1493 

*  Charles  V.  (crowned  at 
Bologna)     .         .         .1519 

*  Ferdinand  I.         .         .  1558 

*  Maximilian  II.      .         .  1564 

*  Rudolf  IL    .         .         .  1576 

*  Matthias      .         .         .  1612 

*  Ferdinand  II.       .         .  1619 

*  Ferdinand  III.     .         .1637 

*  Leopold  L    .        .        .  1658 

*  Joseph  I.      .         .         .  1705 

*  Charles  VI.  .         .         .  1711 

*  Charles   VII.    (of    Ba- 

varia) .         .         .1742 

*  Francis  I.  (of  Lorraine)  1745 

*  Joseph  II.    .         .         .  1765 

*  Leopold  II.  .         .         .  1790 

*  Francis  II.  .         .         .  1792 
Abdication  of  Francis  II.  1806 


*  Those  marked  with  an  asterisk  were  never  actually  crowned  at  Rome, 
t  All  the  succeeding  Emperors,  except  Charles  VII.  and  Francis  I. 
belong  to  the  house  of  Hapsburg. 


234     MANUAL   OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 


SOVEREIGNS   OF  ENGLAND. 


A.D. 

Edward  the  Confessor    .1042 

Henry  VIII.  . 

A..D. 

.  1509 

Harold,   WiUiam   ] 

[.    (of 

Edward  VI.   . 

.  1547 

Normandy) 

.  1066 

Mary      . 

.  1553 

William  II.     . 

.  1087 

Elizabeth 

.  1558 

Henry  I. 

.  1100 

James  I. 

.  1603 

Stephen 

.  1135 

Charles  I.       . 

.  1625 

Henry  II. 

.  1154 

Commonwealth 

.  1649 

Richard  I. 

.  1189 

Oliver    Cromwell, 

Pro- 

John 

.  1199 

tector 

.  1653 

Henry  III.      . 

.  1216 

Richard  Cromwell 

1658-9 

Edward  I. 

.  1272 

Charles  II.      . 

.  1660 

Edward  II.     . 

.  1307 

James  II. 

.  1685 

Edward  III.   . 

.  1327 

William  and  Mary 

.  1689 

Richard  II.     , 

.  1377 

Anne 

.  1702 

Henry  IV.      . 

.  1399 

George  I. 

.  1714 

Henry  V. 

.  1413 

George  II. 

.  1727 

Henry  VI.      . 

.  1422 

George  III.     . 

.  1760 

Edward  IV.    . 

.  1461 

George  IV.      . 

.  1820 

Edward  V.,  Richarc 

1  III.  1483 

William  IV.    . 

.  1830 

Henry  VII.     . 

.  1485 

Victoria . 

.  1837 

SOVEREIGNS   OF  FRANCE. 


Henry  I.         .        .  .  1031 

PhHip  I.         .         .  .1060 

Lewis  VI.  (the  Fat)  .1108 
Lewis  VI L  (the  Young)  1137 

Phihp  II.  (Augustus)  .1180 

Lewis  VIII.  (the  Lion)  .  1223 

Lewis  IX.  (St.  Lewis)  .   1226 

Philip  III.  (the  Bold)  .  1270 

Philip  IV.  (the  Fair)  .  1285 

Lewis  X.         .        .  .  1314 

Phihp  V.  (the  Long)  .1316 

Charles  IV.     .         .  .1322 

Philip  VI.  (of  Valois)  .  1328 
John       ....  1350 

Charles  V.  (the  Wise)  .  1364 

Charles  VI.     .         .  .  1380 

Charles  VII.  .         .  .  1422 

Lewis  XL       .         .  .1461 

Charles  VIII.          .  .  1483 

Lewis  XIL     .        .  .  1498 

Francis  I.       .         .  .1515 


Henry  IL  .  .  .  1547 
Francis  II.  .  .  .  1559 
Charles  IX.  .  .  .1560 
Henry     III,     (King    of 

Poland)  .  .  .  1574 
Henry  IV.  .  .  .  1589 
Lewis  XIII.  .  .  .  1610 
Lewis  XIV.  (the  Great) .  1643 
Lewis  XV.  .  .  .  1715 
Lewis  XVI.  .  .  .  1774 
Republic  .  .  1792-1804 
(Lewis  XVII.)  .  1793-95 
Napoleon         Bonaparte. 

First  Consul  .  .  1799 
Ditto,  Emperor  .  .  1804 
Lewis  XVIIL  .  .  1814 
Charles  X.  .  .  .  1824 
Louis  Philippe  .  .  1830 
Republic  .  .  .1848 
Napoleon  III.,  Emperor .  1852 
Republic        .         .         .  1871 


POPES. 


235 


POIES. 


A.B. 

A.D. 

Victor  II. 

, 

.  1054 

Innocent  V.    . 

.  1276 

Stephen  IX.   . 

.  1057 

Hadrian  V.     . 

.  1276 

Benedict  X.    . 

.  1058 

John  XX.  or  ''  XXL" 

.  1277 

Nicholas  II.    . 

.  1059 

Nicholas  III.  . 

.  1277 

Alexander  11. 

. 

.  1061 

Martin  IV.      . 

.  1281 

Gregory  VII. 

.  1073 

Honorius  IV. . 

.  1285 

(Clement,  anti 

Pope) 

.  1080 

Nicholas  IV.  . 

.  1289 

Victor  III.      . 

.  1086 

Vacancy 

.  1292 

Urban  II.       . 

, 

.  1087 

Celestine  V.    . 

.  1294 

Paschal  II.     . 

. 

.  1099 

Boniface  VIII. 

.  1294 

(Albert,  anti-Pope) 

.  1102 

Benedict  XL  . 

.  1303 

(Sylvester,  anti- Pope) 

.  1105 

Clement  V.     . 

.  1305 

Gelasius  II.    . 

.  1118 

Vacancy 

.  1314 

(Gregory,  anti- 

Pope) 

.  1118 

JohnXXLor'^XXIL" 

.  1316 

Calixtus  II.    . 

.  1119 

Benedict  XII. 

.  1334 

(Celestine,  ant 

L-Pope) 

.  1121 

Clement  VL  . 

.  1342 

Honorius  II.  . 

. 

.  1124 

Innocent  VI.  . 

.  1352 

Innocent  II.    . 

. 

.  1130 

Urban  V. 

.  1362 

(Anacletus,  anti-Pope) 

.  1130 

Gregory  XL   . 

.  1370 

Victor,  anti-Pope    . 

.  1138 

Urban  VI.       . 

.  1378 

Celestine  II.   . 

.  1143 

(Clement  VII.,  anti-Pope) 

Lucius  II. 

.  1144 

Boniface  IX.  . 

.  1389 

Eugenius  III. 

.  1145 

(Benedict.  anti-Pope) 

.  1394 

Anastasius  IV. 

.  1153 

Innocent  VII. 

.  1404 

Hadrian  IV.    . 

.  1154 

Gregory  XII. 

.  1406 

Alexander  III. 

.  1159 

Alexander  V. 

.  1409 

(Victor,  anti-Pope) 

.  1159 

JohnXXILor"XXIIL 

'  1410 

(Paschal,  anti-Pope) 

.  1164 

Martin  V.        . 

.  1417 

(Calixtus,  anti- 

Pope) 

.  1168 

Eugenius  IV. 

.  1431 

Lucius  III.     . 

.  1181 

(Felix  v.,  anti-Pope) 

.  1439 

Urban  III.      . 

.  1185 

Nicholas  V.     . 

.  1447 

Gregoiy  VIII. 

.  1187 

Calixtus  IV.   . 

.  1455 

Clement  III.  . 

.  1187 

Pius  11. 

.  1458 

Celestine  III. 

.  1191 

Paul  II. 

.  1464 

Innocent  III. 

.  1198 

Sixtus  IV.      . 

.  1471 

Honorius  III. 

.  1216 

Innocent  VIII. 

.  1484 

Gregory  IX.   . 

.  1227 

Alexander  VL 

.  1492 

Celestine  IV. . 

.  1241 

Pius  III. 

.  1503 

Vacancy 

.  1241 

Julius  11. 

.  1503 

Innocent  IV.  . 

.  1243 

Leo  X.    . 

.  1513 

Alexander  IV. 

.  1254 

Hadrian  VL    . 

.  1522 

Urban  IV.      . 

.  1261 

Clement  VII. 

1523 

Clement  IV.  . 

.  1265 

Paul  III. 

.  1534 

Vacancy 

.  1269 

Julius  III.       . 

.  1550 

Gregory  X.     . 

.  1271 

Marcellus  II.  . 

.  1555 

236     MANUAL  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 


A.D. 

A.D. 

Paul  IV. 

.  1555 

Innocent  XI. . 

1676 

Pius  IV. 

.  1559 

Alexander  VIII.      . 

1689 

Pius  V. 

.  3  566 

Innocent  XII. 

1691 

Gregory  XIII. 

.  1572 

Clement  XI.  . 

1700 

Sixtus  V. 

.  1585 

Innocent  XIII. 

1720 

Urban  VII.     . 

.  1590 

Benedict  XIII.        . 

1724 

Gregory  XIV. 

.  1590 

Clement  XII. 

1730 

Innocent  IX. . 

.  1591 

Benedict  XIV. 

1740 

Clement  VIII. 

.  1592 

Clement  XIII. 

1758 

Leo  XI. 

.  1604 

Clement  XIV. 

1769 

Paul  V.  . 

.  1604 

Pius  VI. 

1775 

Gregory  XV.  . 

.  1621 

Pius  VII. 

1800 

Urban  VIII.  . 

.  1623 

Leo  XII. 

1823 

Innocent  X.    • 

.  1644 

Pius  VIII.      . 

1829 

Alexander  VII. 

.  1655 

Gregory  XVI. 

1831 

Clement  IX.  . 

.  1667 

Pius  IX. 

1846 

Clement  X.    . 

.  1670 

Leo  XIIL       . 

1878 

GENERAL  COUNCILS. 

(ROMAN   COMPUTATION.) 


9. 

First  Lateran  . 

A.D. 

1123 

16. 

A.D. 

Constance  (oecumen- 

10. 

Second  Lateran 

1139 

ical  in  some  of  its 

11. 

Third  Lateran  . 

1179 

decrees)         .       1414-18 

12. 

Fourth  Lateran 

1215 

17. 

Basle  {idem)    .       1431-49 

13. 

First  of  Lyons  . 

1245 

18. 

Ferrara-Florence    1438-42 

14. 

Second  of  Lyons 

1274 

19. 

Fifth  Lateran  .       1512-17 

15. 

Vienne     .         .       \{ 

Ul-12 

20. 

Trent       .         .       1545-63 

(Pisa 

1409) 

21. 

Vatican    .               1869-70 

THE  THEOLOGICAL  EDUCATOR. 


Under  this  title  a  series  of  Manuals  is  being 
published,  giving  a  solid  and  trustworthy  ground- 
ing in  aH  branches  of  Theological  study.  It 
is  remarkable  that,  while  such  works  on  Lite- 
rature and  Science  abound,  the  field  in  Theology 
is  still  unoccupied. 

The  books  are  wholly  unsectarian,  and  are 
written  by  men  recognised  as  authorities  on 
their  subjects.  They  are  specially  adapted  to 
the  needs  of  those  preparing  for  examinations 
in  Theology. 

While  the  Manuals  are  specially  useful  to 
Theological  Students,  the  clearness  and  simplicity 
of  their  style  will,  it  is  hoped,  attract  the  many 
laymen  interested  in  these  subjects;  while  their 
freshness  and  scholarship  make  them  interesting 
even  to  proficients  in  Theology. 

[p.  T.  O. 


THE  THEOLOGICAL  EDUCATOR. 


READY. 

A    Manual  of  Christian    Evidences.     By  the 

Rev.  C.  A.  Row,  M.A.,  Prebendary  of  St.  Paul's.  Second 
Edition. 

An    Introduction   to   the    Textual    Criticism 

of  the  New  Testament.  By  the  Rev.  Prof.  B.  B. 
Warfield,  D.D. 

A  Hebrew  Grammar.     By  the  Rev.  W.  H.  Lowe, 

M.A.,  Joint-Author  of  "  A  Commentary  on  the  Psalms," 
etc. ;  Hebrew  Lecturer,  Christ's  College,  Cambridge. 

The  Prayer-Book.     By  the  Rev.  Charles  Hole, 

B.A.,  King's  College,  London, 

A  Manual  of  Church  History.     In  Two  Parts. 

By  the  Rev.  A.  C.  Jennings,  M.A.,  Author  of  "  Ecclesia 
Anglicana,"  Joint-Author  of  "A  Commentary  on  the 
Psalms,"  etc.  Vol.  L  From  the  First  to  the  Tenth  Century. 
Vol.  IL  From  the  Eleventh  to  the  Nineteenth  Century. 

An   Exposition  of  the  Apostles'  Creed.     By 

the  Rev.  J.  E.  Yonge,  M.A.,  late  Fellow  of  King's  College, 
Cambridge  ;  and  Assistant  Master  in  Eton  College. 

PREPARING. 

A  Grammar  of  New  Testament  Greek.     By 

the  Rev.  William  Henry  Simcox,  M.A.,  late  Fellow  of 
Queen's  College,  Oxford. 

An  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament.     By 

the  Rev.  C.  H.  H.  Wright,  D.D.,  late  Bampton 
Lecturer. 

An    Introduction    to    the    New    Testament. 

By  the  Rev.  Marcus  Dods,  D.D. 

Outlines  of  Christian  Doctrine.     By  the  Rev. 

H.  C.  G.  MouLE,  M.A.,  Principal  of  Ridley  Hall,  Cambridge. 

Preaching.     By  the  Very  Rev.  S.  Reynolds  Hole, 

]\LA.,  Dean  of  Rochester. 

A   Guide  to  Theological  Literature.     By  the 

Rev.  Marcus  Dods,  D.D.,  and  the  Editor. 


London  : 
HODDER  AND  STOUGHTON,  27,   PATERNOSTER  ROW. 


27,  Paternoster  Row, 
London. 


HODDER  &   STOUGHTON'S 

WORKS    IN    THEOLOGY,    Etc. 


THE  GROWTH  OF  CHURCH  INSTITU- 
TIONS. By  the  Rev.  Edwin  Hatch,  D.D.,  Reader  in 
Ecclesiastical  History,  Oxford ;  and  Author  of  "  Bampton 
Lectures."    In  crown  8vo,  price  5^. 

IRELAND    AND    THE   CELTIC  CHURCH. 

A  History  of  Ireland  from  St.  Patrick  to  the  English 
Conquest  in  1172.  By  Rev.  G.  T.  STOKES,  M.A.,  Professor 
of  Ecclesiastical  History  in  the  University  of  Dublin,  and  Rector 
of  All  Saints,  Blackrock.  Second  Edition.  In  crown  8vo, 
cloth,  price  9^-. 

"Any  one  who  can  make  the  dry  bones  of  ancient  Irish  history  live 
again  may  feel  sure  of  finding  an  audience  sympathetic,  intelligent,  and 
ever-growing.  Dr.  Stokes  has  this  faculty  in  a  high  degree.  This  book 
will  be  a  boon  to  that  large  and  growing  number  of  persons  who  desire  to 
have  a  trustworthy  account  of  the  beginning  of  Irish  history,  and  cannot 
study  it  for  themselves  in  the  great,  but  often  dull  works  of  original 
investigators.  It  collects  the  scattered  and  often,  apparently,  insignificant 
results  of  original  workers  in  this  field,  interprets  them  for  us,  and  brings 
them  into  relation  with  the  broader  and  better-known  facts  of  European 
history." —  Westnt  inster  Review. 

A  New  and  Cheaper  Edition  of 

NATURAL     LAW     IN    THE    SPIRITUAL 

WORLD.  By  Professor  Henry  Drummond,  F.R.S.E., 
F.G.S.  Completing  an  Issue  of  77,000  copies.  In  crown  8vo, 
price  3^.  6d. 

"  We  have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  this  is  one  of  the  most  able  and 
interesting  books  on  the  relations  which  exist  between  natural  science  and 
spiritual  life  that  has  appeared.  Mr.  Drummond  writes  perfect  English  ; 
his  ideas  are  fresh,  and  expressed  with  admirable  felicity." — Literary 
Churchman. 

"This  is  one  of  the  most  impressive  and  suggestive  books  on  religion 
that  we  have  read  for  a  long  time.  Indeed,  with  the  exception  of  Dr. 
Mozley's  '  University  Sermons,'  we  can  recall  no  book  of  our  time  which 
showed  such  a  power  of  restating  the  moral  and  practical  truths  of  religion 
so  as  to  make  them  take  fresh  hold  of  the  mind  and  vividly  impress  the 
imagination." — Spectator. 


HODDER  AND  S  TO  UGH  TON'S 


PALESTINE   IN  THE  TIME  OF  CHRIST. 

By  Edmond  Staffer,  D.D.,  Professor  in  the  Protestant 
Theological  Faculty  of  Paris.  Translated  by  Annie  Harwood 
HOLMDEN.     With  Map.     Crown  8vo,  price  95-. 

"  The  book,  as  a  whole,  is  of  great  interest,  and  will  prove,  we  believe, 
a  great  help  to  those  who  desire  to  reach  for  themselves  the  actual  meaning 
of  the  Gospels.  It  will  be  a  valuable  addition  to  the  apparatus  criticus 
of  the  Biblical  student,  and  will  help  to  give  colour  and  vividness  to  the 

f>reacher's  description  of  scenes  and  incidents  from  which  he  would  draw 
orth  moral  and  spiritual  lessons  for  his  hearers."— NoKcon/ortnist. 

STUDIES   ON    THE    NEW  TESTAMENT. 

By  F.  GODET,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Theology,  Neuchatel.     Edited 
by  the  Hon.  and  Rev.   W.  H.  Lyttelton,  M.A.,  Canon  of 
Gloucester.     Eighth  Edition.     Price  Js.  6d. 
Contents  :— 77z^  Origifi  of  the  Four  Gospels.— Jesus  Christ.— The 
Work  of  Christ. — The  Four  Chief  Apostles. — The  Apocalypse. 

STUDIES    ON    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT. 

By  the  Same  Author.    Fourth  Edition.     Crown  8vo,  price  7^.  6d. 

Contents  : — Angels  — The  Plan  of  the  Development  of  Life  on  our 

Earth. —  The  Six  Days  of  Creation.  —  The  Four  Greater  Prophets. — 

The  Book  of  Job.— The  Song  of  Songs. 

"  Unquestionably  M.  Godet  is  one  of  the  first,  if  not  the  very  first,  of 

contemporary  commentators.      We  have   no    hesitation    in  advising  all 

students  of  the  Scripture  to  procure  and  to  read  with   careful  attention 

these  luminous  essays." — Literary  Churchman. 

THE  CITY  OF  GOD.  A  Series  of  Discus- 
sions in  Religion.  By  A.  M.  Fairbairn,  D.U.,  Principal 
of  Airedale  College.     8vo,  cloth,  price  7^-.  6d. 

"  We  have  read  many  of  the  truly  brilliant  passages  of  this  volume  with 
thrilling  deli^^ht.  The  theology  is  orthodox,  the  logic  is  accurate,  and  the 
learning  profound." — Ecclesiastical  Gazette. 

"A  very  precious  contribution  to  the  higher  domain  of  Christian  thought 
and  life.  It  is  full  of  fine  thinking,  informed  by  a  penetrating  intellect,  a 
large  knowledge,  and  a  generous  catholicity," — British  Quarterly  Review. 

RELIGION    IN    HISTORY    AND    IN    THE 

LIFE    OF    TO-DAY.       By   the   same   Author.      Second 
Edition.     Crown  8vo,  cloth,  price  is.  6d. 
"  His  clear  and  closely  reasoned  thought  finds  utterance  in  clear  and 
well-knit  speech." — Academy. 

STUDIES  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  CHRIST.     By 

the  same  Author.     Fourth  Edition.     8vo,  cloth,  price  gs. 

"  It  scarcely  need  be  said  that  these  studies  are  full  of  spiritual  penetra- 
tion, profound  philosophy  of  moral  life,  and  literary  beauty.  Devout  in 
feeling  and  evangelical  in  theological  view,  they  are  yet  characterised  by 
great  freedom  and  independence  of  thought.  We  do  not  know  where  to 
look,  save  perhaps  in  Pressense's  Jesus  Christ,  for  a  like  combination  of 
reverent  belief  and  broad  independent  thinking." — British  Quarterly 
Revieiv. 


IVOJ^JirS  IN  THEOLOGY. 


Second  Edition. 
CLASSIFIED  GEMS  OF  THOUGHT.    From 

the  Great  Writers  and  Preachers  of  all  Ages.     By  the 

Rev.  F.  B.  Proctor,  M.A.,  King's  College,  London;  Editor 

of  the  Clergyman  s  Magazine.     With  a  Preface  by  the  Rev. 

Prebendary  Wace,  D.D.,  Principal  of  King's  College,  London. 

In  one  Large  Volume,   Royal  8vo,  8i6  pages,  with  extensive 

Indices,  price  \os.  6d.,  cloth. 

"The  book  before  us  seems  in  many  respects  the  best  of  the  kind  with 

which  we  are  acquainted.    A  book  which  we  can  most  warmly  recommend 

as  an  invaluable  help  to  the  preacher  and  the  man  of  letters."— Literary 

Churchman, 

"  This  is  one  of  the  best  books  of  its  kind  we  have  seen." — London 
Quarterly  Review. 

"  Cosmopolitan  in  its  sympathies,  the  list  of  authors  from  which  Mr. 
Proctor  has  drawn  his  '  Gems  '  manifests  a  noble  catholicity  of  spirit." — 
The  Academy. 

"  It  is  distinctly  cheap  at  half-a-guinea.  There  is  so  much  in  the  book 
that  is  good  that  we  advise  preachers  to  obtain  it  and  use  it."— Church 
Tinges. 

"This  book  of  thoughts  and  pregnant  sayings  asks  for  a  place  at  the 
preacher's  elbow  as  a  book  of  reference.  We  think  it  will  not  ask  in 
vain."— The  Rock. 

THE    ANGLICAN    PULPIT    OF    TO-DAY. 

Forty  Short   Biographies  and   Forty  Sermons  of  Dis- 
tinguished Preachers  of  the  Church  of  England.     Crown 
8vo,  price  ^s.  6d.,  handsomely  bound  in  cloth. 
"  A  worthy  tribute  to  the  pulpit  ability  of  the  foremost  preachers  of  the 
venerable  Church  of  England." — Methodist  Recorder. 

"This  is  a  very  remarkable  volume  of  sermons,  preached  by  Church  of 
England  divines,  many  of  whom  have  made  themselves  famous  wherever 
the  English  language  is  spoken.  Every  *  School  of  Thought '  has  its 
representative  amongst  the  preachers  whose  pulpit  utterences  are  here 
bound  together." — English  Churchman. 

ai  IBMt  CpclopiJliia  ott  a  Bciu  plan. 

BIBLICAL    LIGHTS   AND   SIDE-LIGHTS. 

A  Cyclopaedia  of  Ten  Thousand  Illustrations,  with 
Thirty  Thousand  Cross  References,  consisting  of  Facts, 
Incidents,  and  Remarkable  Declarations  taken  from  the 
Bible.  By  the  Rev.  C.  E.  Little.  4to,  cloth,  632  pages, 
price  10s.  6d. 
"An  exceedingly  useful  handbook  for  preachers  and  teachers  of  every 
degree." — Record. 

"  We  count  ourselves  happy  in  possessing  a  copy  of  so  serviceable  a 
compilation.  As  a  saving  of  time  and  labour,  the  possession  of  this 
collection  of  Bible  illustrations  will  be  important  to  every  one  who  speaks 
or  writes  upon  religious  subjects.  Mr.  Little's  work  is  a  great  success." — 
Sword  and  Trowel. 

"  This  is  one  of  those  books  which  go  far  to  supply  all  that  a  minister  or 
teacher  needs  to  furnish  him  for  his  work.  The  side-lights  throwTi  upon 
v/arious  passages  by  the  immense  number  of  carefully-selected  references 
Here  given  disclose  interpretations  and  applications  which  would  other- 
wise escape  him,  and  his  instructions  will  be  greatly  enriched  and  illumined 
by  a  wise  use  of  this  admirable  book." — Christian  World. 

16 


HODDER  AND  STOUGHTOJSrS 


)e  gfordgn  "ptdftcaC  c^tDrari?. 

Edited  by  the  Rev   \V.  Robertson  Nicoll,  M.A.,  Editor  of  the  Expositor. 

The  Foreign  Biblical  Library  is  intended  to  provide  prompt  and  accurate 
translations,  at  a  moderate  price,  of  the  best  and  newest  contributions  of 
Orthodox  Foreign  Scholarship  to  Biblical  Study  and  Research, 

While  the  series  will  mainly  consist  of  Standard  Commentaries  in  their 
latest  editions,  other  works  interesting  to  the  Biblical  student  will  be  from 
time  to  time  included. 

Special  pains  will  be  taken,  in  the  first  place,  to  include  no  books  but 
those  of  permanent  value  ;  and,  in  the  second  place,  to  provide  accurate 
and  scholarly  translations  of  the  latest  editions  of  all  volumes  selected. 

While  the  series  will  mainly  consist  of  works  hitherto  untranslated, 
some  earlier  volumes  will  be  translations  of  Biblical  works  represented 
in  this  country  only  by  renderings  from  early  editions  now  superseded. 
It  is  the  habit  of  foreign  scholars  to  revise  elaborately — and  often  almost 
to  re\yrite — their  Commentaries  for  new  editions,  and  it  is  obvious  that 
injustice  is  done  both  to  authors  and  readers  by  continuing  to  reproduce 
the  earlier  form.  As  in  all  these  cases  the  translations  will  be  produced 
under  the  supervision  of  the  author,  each  work  will  have  the  advantage 
of  his  latest  corrections,  and  thus  represent  his  present  opinion  even 
better  than  the  original. 

Arrangements  have  been  made  with  the  leading  Scholars  of  the 
Continent  for  the  prompt  translation  and  publication  of  their  principal 
forthcoming  works  ;  and  the  following  books  are  now  ready. 

A  new  bmding  has  been  designed  for  the  Series,  which  will  be  stron» 
and  substantial  as  well  as  elegant,  and  thus  suitable  for  works  that  will 
be  in  constant  use. 

Each  Volume  of  the  Series  will  be  issued  in  large  crown  8vo,  at  the 
uniform  price  of  7s.  6d.  per  volxune. 

READY. 

I. 

STILL  HOURS.    By  Richard  Rothe.    Translated 

by  Jane  T.  Stoddart.     With  an  Introductory  Essay  by  the 

Rev.  John  Macpherson,  M.A.     Price  ^s.  6d. 

"  It  is  a  book  of  the  first  order,  full  of  Rothe  himself,  and  of  which  "one 

wearies  as  little  as  of  the  face  of  a  friend.      It  forces   its  way   into  our 

regard,  and  becomes  our  constant  companion,  refusing  to  be  put  on  the 

shelf.     It   has   something  for  every  mood.     It  wins  us  with  a  ceaseless 

attraction  to  open  it,  and  it  never  disappoints."— Rev.  Marcus  Dods,  D.D., 

in  British  Weekly. 

II. 

A    COMMENTARY    ON     THE     BOOK    OF 

PSALMS.     By   Professor   Franz  Delitzsch,  of  Leipzig. 

In  Three  Volumes.     Translated  by  the  Rev.  David  Eaton, 

M.A.     From  the  latest  Edition,  specially  revised  and  corrected 

by  the  Author.     Vol.  I.,  price  7^-.  6d. 
"  Of  Prof.  Delitzsch's  new  edition  it  may  be  fairly  said  that  it  is  the  most 
complete  and  trustworthy  commentary  on  the  Psalms  which  exists.  ,  It  is 
the  care  which  this  veteran  scholar  uniformly  bestows  upon  his  successive 
editions  that  gives  them  their  peculiar  excellence." — Guardian. 

III. 

A  MANUAL  OF  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE 

NEW  TESTAMENT.  By  Professor  Bernhard  Weiss, 
Ph.D.  University  of  Berlin.  Two  Volumes.  Translated  by 
A.  J.  K.  Davidson.     Vol.  I.,  price  7^-.  6d. 


WORKS  IN   THEOLOGY. 


Cf)e  Clerical  lifirarg. 

Price  Six  Shillings  each. 
NEW  OUTLINES  OF  SERMONS  ON  THE 

OLD      TESTAMENT.        Hitherto     Unpublished.       By 
Eminent  Preachers. 

ANECDOTES  ILLUSTRATIVE  OF  OLD 

TESTAMENT  TEXTS. 

"An  excellent  selection  of  anecdotes." — English  Churchman 

EXPOSITORY   SERMONS    ON    THE    OLD 

TESTAMENT. 

*'  This  is  a  volume  of  sermons  of  very  unusual  merit,  and  requiring 
therefore  from  us  emphatic  praise." — Literary  Churchman. 

OUTLINES  OF   SERMONS  ON  THE  OLD 

TESTAMENT. 

NEW  OUTLINES  OF  SERMONS  ON  THE 

NEW    TESTAMENT.       Hitherto    unpublished.      By 
Eminent  Preachers. 
.  "They  have  a  freshness  and  vivacity  about  them  which  are  specially 
taking.'  — Sword  and  Trowel. 

EXPOSITORY   SERMONS  ON  THE  NEW 

TESTAMENT. 

"These  sermons,  some  of  them  in  full  and  some  of  them  in  outline,  are 
collected  together  from  the  best  sources,  and  represent  the  ablest  among 
our  pulpit  orators." — Irish  Ecclesiastical  Gazette. 

THREE     HUNDRED    OUTLINES     OF 

SERMONS  ON  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 

ANECDOTES  ILLUSTRATIVE  OF  NEW 

TESTAMENT  TEXTS. 

"This  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  books  of  anecdote  that  we  have  ever 
seen.  There  is  hardly  one  anecdote  that  is  not  of  first-rate  quality." — 
Christian  Leader. 

OUTLINE     SERMONS     TO     CHILDREN. 

With  Numerous  Anecdotes. 
"Nearly  a  hundred  sermons  by  twenty-nine  eminent  men.     They  are 
remarkably  well  written,  and  most  interesting."— i?oc/t. 

PLATFORM  AIDS. 

"  Just  the  book  to  give  to  some  overworked  pastor  who  has  many 
speeches  to  make,  with  little  time  for  study,  and  less  money  to  spare  for 
new  books." — Christian. 

PULPIT      PRAYERS      BY     EMINENT 

PREACHERS. 

"  The  prayers  are  in  all  cases  exceedingly  beautiful." — Rock. 


8  HODDER  AND  STOUGHTON'S    WORKS. 

GLEANINGS  FROM  A  TOUR  IN  PALES- 
TINE AND  THE  EAST.  By  Rev.  C.  D.  Bell,  D.D., 
Hon.  Canon  of  Carlisle  Cathedral,  Rector  of  Cheltenham. 
With  Map.     In  crown  8vo,  price  ^s. 

"  In  what  so  many  readers  look  for  in  a  book  of  Syrian  travel— the  illus- 
trations and  side-lights  which  the  country  and  the  manners  afford  to  the 
Biblical  story,  and  the  reflections  which  the  sacred  sites  and  scenes  arouse 
in  a  devout  mind — it  would  not  be  easy  to  mention  a  volume  which,  within 
its  compass,  is  more  richly  endowed."— Sco/swaw. 

*'THE  VALLEY  OF  WEEPING  A  PLACE 

OF  SPRINGS."  A  Practical  Exposition  of  the  Thirty- 
Second  Psalm.  By  the  same  Author.  Crown  8vo,  cloth, 
price  3^.  6^. 

"  The  whole  volume  is  delightful  in  every  way.  As  a  meditative  work, 
it  is  one  which  will  be  profoundly  enjoyed  by  those  who  can  obtain  a  copy 
of  it.  The  author  is  a  master  of  exquisite  English,  and  his  smooth  and 
elegant  style  is  here  the  vehicle  of  some  very  precious  thoughts."— 
Clergyman's  Magazine. 

OUR     DAILY     LIFE.       Its    Duties    and    its 

Dangers.  By  the  same  Author.  Crown  8vo,  cloth,  price 
3J.  6d. 

"The  subjects  selected  are  admirably  handled.  It  is  a  very  excellent, 
most  useful  hook."— Church  Bells. 

"  The  book  deserves  to  have  a  wide  circulation.  It  cannot  but  be  pro- 
ductive of  good  to  both  old  and  young." — Christian  Age. 

HENRY  MARTYN.    By  the  same  Author.    Crown 

8vo,  cloth,  price  2s.  6d. 

"A  worthy  record  of  a  noble  \\{e."— Whitehall  Review. 

"A  brilliant  and  sympathetic  portraiture  of  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
and  heroic  of  missionaries.  It  is  impossible  to  read  the  book  without  a 
thrill  of  admiration." — Hand  and  Heart. 

HELP  ON  THE  WAY.     By  the  Rev.  J.  S.  Sheilds, 

D.D.,  Vicar  of  Coolock.     Crown  8vo,  cloth,  price  6^.  'c. 

"  Sermons  worthy  of  their  title,  real  helps  to  faith  and  hope.  Orthodox 
and  able,  devout  and  forcible,  these  discourses  must  have  ministered 
grace  to  the  hearers,  and  we  hope  they  will  be  still  more  useful  to  a 
numerous  company  oi  rea.ders."—Sivord  and  Trowel. 


LONDON  :    HODDER  &  STOUGHTON,   27,   PATERNOSTER  ROW. 


DATE  DUE 

^bftiMdiJ9£ 

CAYLORD 

PRINTEOINU.S.A. 

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